Notes for Final Exam (2).docx

Notes for Final Exam – RELS208 – Introduction to Religious Studies – Professor R. Guarnieri

I.The definition of the term Theology as applied to the three monotheistic religions based on a

natural/supernatural distinction:

Theology is a systematic reflection of reason on a supernatural religion (creed, code, and

ceremony). Theology is an on-going part of the Tradition of the religion, which, in turn,

is related to the Sacred Scriptures of the religion. Theology is subject to development with

respect to its reflection on the essential doctrines of the religion.

Note: Theology must be compatible with science and philosophical reason. It must be

relevant to contemporary human experience

II. World Religions-Part 2: The Three Major Monotheistic Religions

1. Islam

a. The Five Pillars of Islam

(1). “There is no god except God. Muhammad is the final messenger of God”.

Note: This is the central creedal statement (known as the Shahada).

(2).Prayer: All Muslims must pray five times each day. Friday prayers are directed by an

imam. He also delivers a sermon.

(3).Fasting takes place during the holy month of Ramadan, from dawn till sunset.

Muslims are to avoid eating, drinking, smoking, and sex.

(4).Wealth sharing is the moral obligation in the Five Pillars. Note: It is meant primarily

to support the Muslim community, but extends to others.

(5).Pilgrimage (journey) to Mecca once in a lifetime, if possible. This is called the hajj.

b. Islam traces its spiritual roots to Abraham, and reveres all of Judaism’s great prophets,

including Jesus.

c. Definitions: Allah – Arabic name for God; Qur’an – Holy Book of Islam; Muslim – one

who submits to the will of Allah; Jihad – (primary meaning) – an inner struggle to submit

to the will of Allah; Mosque – A Muslim place of worship; Sharia- the divine law, derived

from the Qur’an and the Sunna (the teachings and actions of Muhammad)

2. Judaism

a. Abraham – the first patriarch of the Jewish ( Hebrew, Israelite) people, who was the father

of a great nation. Note: Christianity, insofar as it has Jewish roots, traces its origins to him.

b. The Shema : “Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord alone.” (Deuteronomy 6:4)

c. This was a unique statement because all of Israel’s neighbors were polytheists.

Note: This declaration of monotheism is Judaism’s most basic theological statement.

Note: God has a personal name. God is a personal being involved in the life of humans and

The rest of the created world. God is also beyond creation (transcendent), infinitely

knowing, loving, and powerful.

d. Definitions: The Covenant is the promise (love-bond) made by God to the Jews that they

would be his people if they kept the Law.

The Torah – refers to all the laws in the Hebrew Scriptures concerning worship and ethical

conduct; the Exodus (Passover) – the passage from slavery in Egypt to freedom

Note: The Torah and the Exodus are the two main aspects of the Covenant.

Prophet – A prophet is a spokesperson for God.

Temple or Synagogue – A Jewish place of worship

3. Christianity

a. Define the three core doctrines of Christianity: the Trinity, the Incarnation, and the

Atonement (Redemption).

The Trinity –1. There are three divine Persons in one God.

2. The traditional biblical names for the three Persons are Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

Note: The one nature of God exists in three Persons.

The Incarnation – (as formulated in the Catholic tradition) – Jesus Christ is one divine

Person, the Son of God, in two natures, human and divine. Note: He is truly (fully) God

and truly (fully) man. He is like us in all things, except sin.

The Atonement or the Redemption– Through the life, death, and Resurrection of Jesus

Christ all people are saved from sin and death, given a new life of grace, and the hope of

eternal life.

b. The resurrection of the body (final fulfillment), as understood in the Christian

tradition is a transformation, not a resuscitation.

c.The definition of the Church - The Church is the community founded by Christ, which

consists of those who believe in Christ and the central truths revealed through him.

Note: In the Christian tradition, a particular sacrament is a symbol of the grace of Christ

and is related to an essential aspect of his ministry.

Note: The Church (as a whole) is the sacrament of Christ.

Note: The definition of a sacrament- A sacrament, in general (in all religions), is a symbol

of God’s grace.

Note: In the Catholic and Orthodox traditions, a sacrament is also a means by which grace is

bestowed on an individual and on the community.

Note: The three divisions of Christianity:

(1). Roman Catholicism teaches that (a) both the Bible and Tradition are means of handing

on God’s revelation in Christ; (b) the Pope and the bishops (successors of the Apostles)

constitute the Magisterium(teaching office of the Church), and are primarily responsible

for preserving the Tradition passed on to them.

structure, and seven sacraments.

(2). Eastern Orthodoxy – (a) celebrates the same seven sacraments as Catholicism; (b) holds

that ultimate authority rests with the bishops of the Church assembled together, who

represent the mind of the Church. There is no pope – that is, there is no one bishop who

has special doctrinal authority.

(3). (Classical) Protestantism – based on two principles: (a) the Bible alone is the means of

knowing Christ, not Tradition protected by Church authority. (b). Justification by faith-

salvation is achieved by the grace of God for one who has faith in Jesus Christ, not

through good works. Good works will naturally follow from faith.

Many contemporary Protestants recognize that both faith and good works

are related to salvation. There are differing views within the Christian tradition about

whether the faith of non-Christians must be explicit, or merely implicit, as a condition of

salvation.

III. Sacred Scripture (as understood within Judaism and Christianity)

a. What is the mainstream (non-fundamentalist) Jewish/Christian view of the Bible?

Ans. The Bible is the Word of God in the words of human writers, who were subject to

intellectual and cultural limitations. The Bible contains revealed truth, that is, truth related

to salvation. However, while everything in the Bible is inspired, not everything in the Bible

is revealed. Note: To say that everything in the Bible is inspired means that God is guiding

the entire human process of searching for the truths related to salvation.

Note: There are errors, from a theological and philosophical perspective, as well

as errors, from a historical and scientific perspective.

Note: The issues stated above also concern the sacred writings of religions outside

the Judeo-Christian tradition, including Islam.

Note: The goal of modern biblical scholarship is to determine the meaning of the text-

that is, to determine the intent of the author(s). The issue of biblical interpretation

and the various methods by which it is undertaken, is discussed in Chapter 10 of

the textbook. Also mentioned are the literary devices which convey revealed truth.

b. The two standards for determining truth from error in the Bible and the Qur’an are:

1. Compatibility with the message of the Covenant that God has saved humanity from sin

and elevated humanity to a new life of grace.

2. Compatibility with reason (philosophical and scientific)

Note concerning #1;

The Covenant is revealed through the patriarchs and the prophets (Judaism).

It is fulfilled in Jesus Christ, according to Christians. Note: Christ is a title meaning

The Anointed (Chosen) One

For those who adhere to the religion of Islam, the central message of the Covenant is

considerered to be finalized in the revelations of Allah to Muhammad.

Note concerning #2:

Supernatural Revelation builds on reason; Faith (supernatural) builds on reason;

Grace builds on nature.

Note: Fundamentalism is the view that the Bible should be interpreted literally. This view

involves a dictation theory of inspiration. The Bible is the direct Word of God, and

therefore, is totally inerrant with respect to the words. However, this view admits

that we do not always know what God meant (to explain contradictions), and that, in

some cases, literary devices are used.

Note: The Relationship between Scripture and Tradition (in the Catholic-Christian tradition):

Sacred Scripture is part of the Sacred Tradition which preceded it. However, Sacred

Scripture is the official written witness to God’s Revelation in Christ.

There are no new revealed truths in the Sacred Tradition which is subsequent to Sacred

Scripture, only authoritative explanations/interpretations by the teaching authority of the

Church with respect to these truths.

IV. Religion and Morality

A. Fundamental

Note: A general definition of morality (philosophical level) – Morality refers to values

(rules or norms), which are known by reason, and which guide free choices. These choices,

which are positive or negative, affect ourselves and others, and determine the person we are

becoming, and what life means to us.

1. The essential features of the Natural Moral Law are:

a. It begins with human nature;

b..It uses reason to investigate human nature, and to derive general principles which reflect

human nature.

c. It applies these principles to specific moral issues.

d.The foundation of the natural moral law is God’s Eternal Law.

Note: The Natural Moral Law is revelant to the following areas of morality: 1. Human Life

Issues 2. Political and Economic Justice 3. The Environment 4. Sexuality and Marriage.

2. The creed and ceremony of the three monotheistic religions based on supernatural revelation

add a new context to the morality (code) of those religions. This new context is the

Covenant (forgiveness/new life of grace). However, the Covenant does not add new

rules over and above those known by natural reason.

3. In all religions, both faith and morality are necessary for salvation.

4. Christian morality can be understood, in a distinctive sense, as a participation in the saving

work of Christ.

Note: This definition depends on understanding the life, death, and Resurrection

of Christ as a universal norm (rule), in a unique sense, which relates to the motive, standard,

and goal of morality.

Note: The Ten Commandments, which are found in the Hebrew Scriptures, are a

specific set of laws which are truly from God. They are the minimal requirements of

the Law.

5. The Beatitudes, which are found in the Christian Scriptures, are a set of attitudes (ideals)

in the form of sayings which constitute the underlying foundation for the adherence to all

specific moral laws. The Beatitudes perfect the Commandments, which means that

they both depend on and exceed the minimal requirements of the Law.

In addition, the Beatitudes specify the rewards and blessings for those who live according

to them.

B. Applied (including all social justice issues)

1.The Kingdom of God is a new social order based on love and justice. Political, military, and economic power must be used in the service of these two virtues, and to promote peace. Within Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (and, in some way, in all religions), this concept is central.

According to traditional Christian belief, Christ both proclaims and, as the Divine Son of God/Absolute Savior, makes present the Kingdom of God. He proclaims the Gospel (the good news of salvation), and is the Gospel.

2. The underlying theme of all religions, is a proclamation of freedom from sin

(both individual and social), which is a freedom deeper than the freedom from any

social injustice. In the Christian tradition, this is related to Jesus, who came to bring

about the salvation (liberation) of humanity. Note: This is the central theme of the Gospel.

Note: While salvation (the Kingdom of God) is fully realized only in the future (a transformed state of existence), it begins in the here and now. Therefore, the central teachings of all religions include the moral obligation to oppose all forms of social injustice in the world as we know it.

3. The two aspects of dealing with social injustice are a) Direct action, and b) Structural change.

4. The major moral teaching of all religions, which is the foundation for a consideration of all

social justice issues, is the intrinsic value (sacredness) of human life from conception to natural

death.

Note: Five main implications of this teaching are: a) The importance of the family as part of the human community (the Church, in the inclusive sense); b) All civil liberties, beginning with the right to life; c) The recognition of the dignity of work; d) The just distribution of wealth, which

includes an outreach to the people of poor nations, as well as to immigrants and refugees; e) The protection of the environment, on which human life depends. Note: Concerning letter d)- The natural right of private property is affirmed. However, this right is limited by the universal destination of goods, and is legitimately exercised only if labor has a priority over capital. Therefore, the market-based economy, which is based on the right of private property, must be regulated by the government in order to serve the common good.

Note: Three forms of Justice: 1. Commutative Justice-refers to obligations between individuals and small groups. Distributive Justice-refers to the obligations of the government with respect to all individuals. 3. Legal Justice-refers to the obligations of every individual to the

government.

V. God and the Problem of Evil and Suffering

1.The problem is how to reconcile the existence of evil (natural and moral) and suffering with the existence of a God who is infinitely knowing, good (loving), and powerful.

Note: The attempt to do this is traditionally called theodicy. “It refers to the attempt to show how the bad things that happen in the world are somehow in accord with God’s law, or with a divine sense of justice.” (Faith, Religion, and Theology, p.416)

2.The response of the three major monotheistic religions : God does not cause evil; but He does

allow it for reasons which are beyond our understanding. Evil and suffering should not be

understood as a punishment from God. Note: Recall the distinction between God’s

causative will and God’s permissive will.

3.There is a redemptive value in the acceptance of unavoidable suffering, and in the morally

positive acts with which we cope with it. Note: This idea can be applied to all religions.

According to Christian belief, this involves uniting our suffering to the suffering of Christ.

Note:The idea that evil and suffering are not the result of divine punishment is confirmed in the

Book of Job, and in the teaching of Jesus. Moral evil (sin) has its own, necessary consequences. Moreover, we must not deliberately seek suffering, and we must attempt to diminish or eliminate it, to the extent that we are able. This involves self-sacrifice in imitation of Christ, the major figures of Judaism (the patriarchs and the prophets), Muhammed, and holy people in all the Eastern religions, including Mahatma Gandhi and Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), through whom

God suffers with, and has compassion for all humanity. In all religions, the positive responses to the experience of what is considered universally meaningful, whether in idea or practice, have, as an underlying theme/motivation, the triumph of good over evil.

According to the three major monotheistic religions, God will ultimately bring good out of evil.

This is the meaning of the traditional teaching of the resurrection of the body.

Important Note on the question of the relationship of the Jesus of History and the Christ of Faith:

Modern biblical scholarship has enabled Christians to realize that the Gospels are confessional documents. This means that they, to some extent, creatively express the faith-response of the early Christians, which was based on Jesus’ life (words/deeds), death, and bodily Resurrection. However, the Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox traditions clearly affirm what was proclaimed by the early Christians-namely, that the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith are essentially one and the same. This affirmation does not depend on biblical scholarship. Rather, it ultimately falls within the domain of faith, supported by reason, which raises key questions concerning the rise of Christianity as a religion which is distinct from Judaism.