consumer behavior final test review chp7-13
Consumer Behaviour: Buying, Having, Being - Ninth Canadian Edition
Affect
the way a consumer feels about an attitude object
Attitude
a lasting, general evaluation of people (including oneself), objects, or issues
Attitude accessibility
how quickly an attitude can be accessed from memory based on how frequently the attitude is activated, how salient it is, and its links to other constructs
Attitude models
models that seek to predict an individual’s attitude toward an object
Balance theory
a theory that considers relations among elements a person might perceive as belonging together, and people’s tendency to change relations among elements to make them consistent or “balanced”
Behaviour
a consumer’s actions with regard to an attitude object
Celebrity and influencer endorsements
a form of advertising that uses personalities or celebrities who ideally command a degree of recognition, trust, respect or awareness amongst the target audience. Such people lend their names or images to promote a product or service
Cognition
the beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object
Experiential hierarchy of effects
model that suggests we act on the basis of our emotional reactions and intuitive feelings about a product or choice
Foot-in-the-door technique
based on the observation that a consumer is more likely to comply with a request if he or she has first agreed to comply with a smaller request
Functional theory of attitudes
a pragmatic approach that focuses on how attitudes facilitate social behaviour; attitudes exist because they serve some function for the person
Hierarchy of effects
a fixed sequence of steps that occurs during attitude formation; this sequence varies depending on such factors as the consumer’s level of involvement with the attitude object
Multi-attribute attitude models
those models that assume a consumer’s attitude (evaluation) of an attitude object depends on the beliefs he or she has about several or many attributes of the object
Normative influence
the process in which a reference group helps to set and enforce fundamental standards of conduct
Principle of cognitive consistency
the belief that consumers value harmony among their thoughts, feelings, and behaviours and that they are motivated to maintain uniformity among these elements
Self-perception theory
an alternative explanation of dissonance effects; it assumes that people use observations of their own behaviour to infer their attitudes toward some object
Social judgment theory
the perspective that people assimilate new information about attitude objects in light of what they already know or feel; the initial attitude acts as a frame of reference, and new information is categorized in terms of this standard
Subjective norm (SN)
an additional component in the multi-attribute attitude model that accounts for the effects of what we believe other people think we should do
Theory of cognitive dissonance
the perspective that cognitive discomfort results from an individual holding logically inconsistent beliefs about an object or an event; the consumer is motivated to reduce dissonance through changing his or her beliefs and evaluations about the object or the event
Theory of reasoned action
an updated version of the Fishbein multi-attitude theory that considers such factors as social pressure and Aact (the attitude toward the act of buying a product), rather than attitudes toward just the product itself
Communications model
a framework specifying that a number of elements are necessary for communication to be achieved, including a source, message, medium, receivers, and feedback
Comparative advertising
a strategy in which a message compares two or more specifically named or recognizably presented brands and makes a comparison of them in terms of one or more specific attributes
Elaboration likelihood model (ELM)
the approach that one of two routes to persuasion (central versus peripheral) will be followed, depending on the personal relevance of a message; the route taken determines the relative importance of message content versus other characteristics, such as source attractiveness
Halo effect
the transfer of the original impression to other associated categories
Match-up hypothesis
the theory that the dominant characteristics of a product should match the dominant features of the communications source
Native advertising
digital messages designed to blend into the editorial content of the publications in which they appear
Permission marketing
the strategy of first asking consumers to indicate interest in receiving information about a product or service to ensure that they will pay attention to the promotional messages they will then receive if they agree
Persuasion
an active attempt to change attitudes
Persuasion knowledge model (PKM)
a conceptual model that views the consumer and persuasive agent exchange as a two-way interaction in which both agents have their own goals; the model predicts that consumers will develop and use their knowledge of persuasion techniques to manage these interactions
Source attractiveness
the source’s perceived social value
Source credibility
a source’s perceived expertise, objectivity, or trustworthiness
Source derogation
viewing the source of a marketing message negatively
Spokescharacters
animated characters created by a brand to help position the brand and promote a particular brand image
Two-factor theory
the perspective that two separate psychological processes are operating when a person is repeatedly exposed to an ad: repetition increases familiarity and thus reduces uncertainty about the product, but over time boredom increases with each exposure and at some point the amount of boredom incurred begins to exceed the amount of uncertainty reduced, resulting in wearout
Antibrand communities
groups of consumers who share a common disdain for a celebrity, store, or brand
Aspirational reference group
a reference group that the consumer aspires to be a part of (e.g., high-profile athletes and celebrities)
Brand community
a set of consumers who share a set of social relationships based on usage of or interest in a product
Buzz marketing
activities undertaken by marketers to encourage consumers to spread word of mouth about the brand
Conformity
a change in beliefs or actions as a reaction to real or imagined group pressure
Decision polarization
the process whereby individuals’ choices tend to become more extreme (polarized), in either a conservative or risky direction, following group discussion of alternatives
Deindividuation
the submerging of individual identities within a group
Descriptive norms
norms conveying information about what is typical or what people commonly do
Dissociative reference groups
groups (or group members) the consumer wants to avoid association with
Dynamic norms
information about how other people’s behaviour is changing over time
Influence network
a network in which others are influenced about a product or a service; the influence is driven less by influentials and more by the interaction among those who are easily influenced, who communicate the information vigorously to one another, and who participate in a two-way dialogue with the opinion leader
Injunctive norms
norms that convey information regarding what is commonly approved and disapproved of by others
Lurkers
non-participatory users of online communities and sites, who absorb content without contributing
Market maven
a person who often serves as a source of information about marketplace activities
Mass connectors
highly influential members of social media networks
Media multiplexity
the situation in social media in which flows of communication may travel in many directions and across multiple platforms, at any single point of time
Megaphone effect
the fact that the web makes a mass audience potentially available to ordinary consumers
Membership reference groups
individuals or a group of individuals who belong to the consumer’s own in-group (e.g., family, peer group, team) and who influence the consumer’s attitudes and behaviours
Nodes
in associative network models, the representation of a piece of information
Normative influence
the process in which a reference group helps to set and enforce fundamental standards of conduct
Norms
the informal rules that govern what is right or wrong
Opinion leaders
those people who are knowledgeable about products and who are frequently able to influence others’ attitudes or behaviours with regard to a product category
Product curators
individuals who create unique product collections to appeal to individuals or specfic groups
Reactance
a “boomerang effect” that sometimes occurs when consumers are threatened with a loss of freedom of choice; they respond by doing the opposite of the behaviour advocated in a persuasive message
Red sneakers effect
the tendency to view a non-conforming individual more positively, assuming they might be more powerful or competent
Reference group
an actual or imaginary individual or group that has a significant effect on an individual’s evaluations, aspirations, or behaviour
Social identity theory
the perspective that a person’s sense of who they are is based on their group membership(s)
Social loafing
the tendency for people not to devote as much to a task when their contribution is part of a larger group effort
Social norms
standards of acceptable behaviour shared by members of a group that guide or constrain social behaivours
Social power
the capacity of one person to alter the actions or outcomes of another
Sociometric methods
the techniques for measuring group dynamics that involve the tracing of communication patterns in and among groups
Tie strength
the relative strength or closeness between individuals, often in a social network setting
Two-step flow model of influence
a theory that proposes that a small group of influencers are responsible for dissemination of information, since they can modify the opinions of a large number of other people
Word-of-mouth communication (WOM)
the information transmitted by individual consumers on an informal basis
Behavioural economics
the study of the behavioural determinants of economic decisions
Brand prominence
the degree to which a consumer desires to conspicuously display a brand, product, or logo to others
Census family
a housing unit containing at least one family (a husband and wife, married or living common-law, or lone parent of any marital status, with or without children who have never married and are still living at home)
Conspicuous consumption
the purchase and prominent display of luxury goods to signal to others the consumer’s ability to afford them
Consumer confidence
the state of mind of consumers reflecting their optimism or pessimism about economic conditions; people tend to make more discretionary purchases when their confidence in the economy is high
Discretionary income
the money available to a household over and above that required for a comfortable standard of living
Family life cycle (FLC)
a classification scheme that segments consumers in terms of changes in income and family composition and changes in demands placed on income
Household living arrangements
whether or not an individual lives with another person or persons and, if so, whether or not he or she is related to them
Income inequality
the extent to which resources are distributed unevenly within a population
Mass class
global consumers who have a high level of purchasing power that enables them to afford high-quality products, except for big-ticket items such as higher education, housing, and luxury cars
Social capital
the interpersonal relationships, institutions, and other social assets of a society or group that can be used to gain advantage
Social class
the overall rank of people in a society; people who are grouped within the same social class are approximately equal in terms of their social standing, occupations, and lifestyles
Social mobility
the movement of individuals from one social class to another
Social stratification
the process in a social system by which scarce and valuable resources are distributed unequally to status positions that become more or less permanently ranked in terms of the share of valuable resources each receives
Spendthrifts
consumers who are motivated to spend extravagantly because their spending gives them pleasure
Status crystallization
the extent to which different indicators of a person’s status (income, ethnicity, occupation) are consistent with one another
Status hierarchy
a ranking of social desirability in terms of consumers’ access to such resources as money, education, and luxury goods
Status symbols
products that are purchased and displayed to signal membership in a desirable social class
Tightwads
consumers who are motivated to spend cautiously because it is unpleasant for them to spend their money
Acculturation agents
individuals and organizations who serve as sources of cultural information
Collecting
the systematic acquisition of a particular object or set of objects
Collective selection
the process by which certain symbolic alternatives tend to be jointly chosen over others by members of a society
Continuous innovation
a product change or new product that requires relatively little adaptation by the adopter
Conventions
norms regarding the conduct of everyday life
Creolization
occurs when foreign influences integrate with local meanings, often leading to new behaviours or products
Cross-cultural analysis
systematic examination of the degree to which consumers from two or more cultures are different or similar in terms of psychological, social, and cultural factors
Cultivation hypothesis
a perspective emphasizing the media’s ability to distort consumers’ perceptions of reality
Cultural formula
a sequence of media events in which certain roles and props tend to occur consistently
Cultural gatekeepers
individuals responsible for determining the types of messages and symbolism to which members of mass culture are exposed
Cultural selection
the process by which some alternatives are selected over others by cultural gatekeepers
Culture
the values, ethics, rituals, traditions, material objects, and services produced or valued by the members of a society
Culture production system (CPS)
the set of individuals and organizations responsible for creating and marketing a cultural product
Custom
a norm derived from a traditional way of doing things
Desacralization
the process that occurs when a sacred item or symbol is removed from its special place, or is duplicated in mass quantities, and becomes profane as a result
Diffusion of innovation
the process whereby a new product, service, or idea spreads through a population
Discontinuous innovation
a product change or new product that requires a significant amount of adaptation by the adopter
Dynamically continuous innovation
a product change or new product that requires a moderate amount of adaptation by the adopter
Early adopters
the approximately 13.5 percent of people receptive to new styles or innovations, who often adopt new products and styles after the innovators have done so
Early majority
the 34 percent of consumers likely to adopt a new product or innovation after it has caught on with the early adopters
Emic perspective
an approach to studying cultures that stresses the unique aspects of each culture
Ethos
a set of moral, aesthetic, and evaluative principles
Etic perspective
an approach to studying cultures that stresses commonalities across cultures
Fashion
the process of social diffusion by which a new style is adopted by some group(s) of consumers
Fashion acceptance cycle
the diffusion process of a style through three stages: introduction, acceptance, and regression
Fashion system
those people and organizations involved in creating symbolic meanings and transferring these meanings to cultural goods
Gift-giving ritual
the events involved in the selection, presentation, acceptance, and interpretation of a gift
Host culture
the culture that acculturating individuals move to
Innovation
a product or style perceived as new by consumers
Innovators
people who are always on the lookout for novel developments and will be the first to try a new offering
Laggards
the last 16 percent of consumers to adopt a new product, service, or innovation in the marketplace
Late majority
the 34 percent of consumers who adopt a new product or innovation after the early majority, but before the laggards
Meme theory
an idea or product enters the consciousness of people over time, starting off small and steadily increasing its presence
Microculture
communities of consumers who participate in or otherwise identify with specific art forms, popular culture movements, hobbies, etc.
Monomyth
a myth with basic characteristics that is found in many cultures
More
a norm with strong moral overtones
Myth
a story containing symbolic elements that expresses the shared emotions and ideals of a culture
Norms
the informal rules that govern what is right or wrong
Product placement
the process of obtaining exposure for a product by arranging for it to be inserted into a movie, TV show, or some other medium
Profane consumption
the process of consuming objects and events that are ordinary or of the everyday world
Progressive learning model
a theory asserting that individuals additively acquire new values and behaviours as they come into contact with them
Reality engineering
the process whereby elements of popular culture are appropriated by marketers and become integrated into marketing strategies; examples of this phenomenon include infomercials and product placement
Reciprocity norm
a culturally learned obligation to return the gesture of a gift with one of equal value
Rites of passage
sacred times marked by a change in social status
Ritual
a set of multiple, symbolic behaviours that occur in a fixed sequence and that tend to be repeated periodically
Sacred consumption
the process of consuming objects and events that are set apart from normal life and treated with some degree of respect or awe
Subculture
a group whose members share beliefs and common experiences that set them apart from other members of a culture
Symbol
an object that represents something else
Trickle-down theory
the perspective that fashions spread as the result of status symbols associated with the upper classes “trickling down” to other social classes as these consumers try to emulate those with greater status
Value
an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct is personally or socially preferable to an opposite mode of conduct