BLUE: VERY IMPORTANT

GREEN: KINDA IMPORTANT

RED: NEED TO REVISE

Unit 2

Nervous System

• an extensive network of specialized cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body.

Neuroscience

• a branch of the life sciences that deals with the structure and function of neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue.

biological psychology

• branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning.

Neuron

• the basic cell that makes up the nervous system and that receives and sends messages within that system.

Dendrites

• branchlike structures of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons.

soma (CELL BODY)

the cell body of the neuron responsible for maintaining the life of the cell.

axon

• tubelike structure of neuron that carries the neural message from the cell body to the axon terminals, for communication with other cells.

axon terminals

• enlarged ends of axonal branches of the neuron, specialized for communication between cells.

glial cells

• cells that provide support for the neurons to grow on and around, deliver nutrients to neurons, produce myelin to coat axons, clean up waste products and dead neurons, influence information processing, and, during prenatal development, influence the generation of new neurons.

• cleans and delivers nutriance

myelin sheath

• fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse.

nerves

• bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel together through the body.

Diffusion !

• process of molecules moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

resting potential !

• the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse.

action potential !

• the release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon.

synaptic vesticles !

• saclike structures found inside the synaptic knob containing chemicals.

neurotransmitter

• chemical found in the synaptic vesticles that, when released, has an effect on the next cell

Synapse (synaptic gap)

• microscopic fluid-filled space between the synaptic knob of one cell and the dendrites or surface of the next cell.

receptor sites

• three-dimensional proteins on the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters.

excitatory (excited) synapse

• synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire.

inhibiitory (inhibiting) synapse

• synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to stop firing

antagonists

• Chemical substances that block or reduce a cell's response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters.

agonists

• chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell.

Reuptake

• process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles.

enzymatic degradation

• process by which structure of neurotransmitter is altered so it can no longer act on a receptor.

lesioning

• insertion of a thin, insulated electrode into the brain through which an electrical current is sent, destroying the brain cells at the tip of the wire.

computed tomography (CT)

• brain-imaging method using computer-controlled X-rays of the brain.

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

• brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

• a recording of the electrical activity of large groups of cortical neurons just below the skull, most often using scalp electrodes.

posistron emission tomography (PET)

• brain-imaging method in which a radioactive sugar is injected into the subject and a computer complies a color-coded image of the activity of the brain.

Fuctional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

• MRI-based brain-imaging method that allows for functional examination of brain areas through changes in brain oxygenation

PARTS OF THE BRAIN STILL CHAPTER 2 JESUS CHRIST

medulla

• the first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the brain, which is responsible for life-sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate.

Pons

• the larger swelling above the medulla that connects the top of the brain to the bottom and that plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left-right body coordination, and arousal.

reticular formation (RF)

• an area of neurons running through the middle of the medulla and the pons and slightly beyond that is responsible for general attention, alertness, and arousal.

Cerebellum

• part of the lower brain located behind the pons that controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement.

limbic system

• a group of several brain structures located under the cortex and involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation.

thalamus

• part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain, this structure relays sensory information from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex and processes some sensory information before sending it to its proper area.

olfactory bulbs

• two bulb-like projections of the brain located just above the sinus cavity and just below the frontal lobes that receive information from the olfactory receptor cells.

Hypothalamus

• small structure in the brain located below the thalamus and directly above the pituitary gland, responsible for motivational behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex.

Hippocampus

• curved structure located within each temporal lobe, responsible for the formation of long-term memories and the storage of memory for location of objects.

Amygdala

• brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory of fear.

cortex

• outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input.

Cerebrum

• the upper part of the brain consisting of the two hemispheres and the structures that connect them.

cerebral hemispheres

• the two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain.

split brain patients

• people whose corpus callosum has been surgically severed

split brain research

• study of patients with severed corpus callosum
  involves sending messages to only one side of the brain
  -demonstrates right and left brain specialization.

corpus callosum

• thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

occipital lobes

• section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing the visual centers of the brain.

parietal lobes

• sections of the brain located at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for touch, taste, temperature sensations, and body position.

somasensory cortex

• area of cortex at the front of the parietal lobes responsible for processing information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, and body position.

temporal lobes

• areas of the cortex located just behind the temples containing the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech.

frontal lobes

• areas of the brain located in the front and top, responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech.

motor cortex

• rear section of the frontal lobe, responsible for sending motor commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous system.

mirror neurons

• neurons that fire when an animal or person performs an action and also when an animal or person observes that same action being performed by another.

association areas

• areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing.

Broca's area

• Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

• controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

Broca's aphasia

• condition resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly.

Wernicke's aphasia

• condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language.

spatial neglect

• condition produced by damage to the association areas of the right hemisphere resulting in an inability to recognize objects or body parts in the left visual field.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

• part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

spinal chord

• a long bundle of neurons that carries messages between the body and the brain and is responsible for very fast, lifesaving reflexes.

afferent (sensory) neuron

• a neuron that carries information from the senses to the central nervous system.

efferent (motor) neuron

• a neuron that carries messages from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body.

interneuron

• a neuron found in the center of the spinal cord that receives information from the afferent neurons and sends commands to the muscles through the efferent neurons. Interneurons also make up the bulk of the neurons in the brain.

reflex arc

• the connection of the afferent neurons to the interneurons to the efferent neurons, resulting in a reflex action.

Neuroplasticity

• the ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma.

neurogenesis

• the formation of new neurons; occurs primarily during prenatal development but may also occur at lesser levels in some brain areas during adulthood.

stem cells

• special cells found in all the tissues of the body that are capable of becoming other cell types when those cells need to be replaced due to damage or wear and tear.

Epigenetics

• the interaction between genes and environmental factors that influence gene activity; environmental factors include diet, life experiences, and physical surroundings.

NERVOUS SYSTEMS WHY STILL CHAPTER 2 OML

somatic nervous system

• division of the PNS consisting of nerves that carry information from the senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the voluntary muscles of the body.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• all nerves and neurons that are not contained in the brain and spinal cord but that run through the body itself.

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

• division of the PNS consisting of nerves that control all of the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands.

sensory pathways of CNS

• nerves coming from the sensory organs to the CNS consisting of afferent neurons.

motor pathways of CNS

• nerves coming from CNS to the voluntary muscles, consisting of different neurons.

sympathetic division (fight-or-flight system)

• also called the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), part of the ANS that is responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal.

parasympathetic nervous system (eat-drink-and-rest-system)

• also called the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), part of the ANS that restores the body to normal functioning after arousal and is responsible for the day-to-day functioning of the organs and glands.

GLANDS AND THINGS RELEASED BY THEM you already know what damn chapter this is

hormones

• chemicals released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands.

Endoctrine glands

• glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.

pituitary gland

• gland located in the brain that secretes human growth hormone and influences all other hormone-secreting glands (also known as the master gland).

Oxytocin

• hormone released by the posterior pituitary gland that is involved in reproductive and parental behaviors.

pineal gland

• endocrine gland located near the base of the cerebrum; secretes melatonin.

thyroid gland

• endocrine gland found in the neck; regulates metabolism.

Pancreas

• endocrine gland; controls the levels of sugar in the blood.

Gonads

• sex glands; secrete hormones that regulate sexual development and behavior as well as reproduction.

Gonads: Testes

• have interstitial cells; produce testosterone when stimulated by Luteinizing Hormone from the Anterior pituitary; LH is also known as "insterstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH);.

Gonads: Ovaries

• produce ova and the hormones estrogen and progesterone; controlled by FSH and LH (anterior pituitary); FSH stimulates ovarian follicles to develop; as follicle and ovum grow, increasing amounts of estrogen are released from the follicular cells.

adrenal glands

• endocrine glands located on top of each kidney that secrete over 30 different hormones to deal with stress, regulate salt intake, and provide a secondary source of sex hormones affecting the sexual changes that occur during adolescence.

Phineas Gage

• railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function.

prefrontal cortex

• the frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans; important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality.

obitofrontal cortex

• a part of the prefrontal cortex located right behind the eyes that participates in impulse control.

limbic cortex

• collection of structures of the cerebral cortex that are involved in emotion, memory, and behavior and are part of the larger limbic system.

  STOP HERE FOR UNIT 2

UNIT 3 FINALLY SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Sensation

• the process that occurs when special receptors in the sense organs are activated, allowing various forms of outside stimuli to become neural signals in the brain.

Tansduction

• the process of converting outside stimuli, such as light, into neutral activity.

Synesthesia

• condition in which the signals from the various sensory organs are processed differently, resulting in the sense information being interpreted as more than one sensation.

just noticeable difference (JND or the difference threshold)

• the smallest difference between two stimuli that is detectable 50 percent of the time.

absolute threshold

• the lowest level of stimulation that a person can consciously detect 50 percent of the time the stimulation is present.

signal detection theory

• provides a method for assessing the accuracy of judgements or decisions under certain conditions: used in perception research and other areas. An individual's correct "hits" and rejections are compared against their "misses" and "false alarms"

Habituation

• tendency of the brain to stop attending to constant, unchanging information.

sensory adaptation

• tendency of sensory receptor cells to become less responsive to a stimulus that is unchanging.

STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

visual accommodation

• the change in the thickness of the lens as the eye focuses on objects that are far away or close.

rods

• visual sensory receptors found at the back of the retina, responsible for noncolor sensitivity to low levels of light.

cones

• visual sensory receptors found at the back of the retina, responsible for color vision and sharpness of vision.

blind spot

• area in the retina where the axons of the three layers of retinal cells exit the eye to form the optic nerve, insensitive to light.

Optic nerve

• the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

dark adaptation

• the recovery of the eye's sensitivity to visual stimuli in darkness after exposure to bright lights.

light adaptation

• the recovery of the eye's sensitivity to visual stimuli in light after exposure to darkness.

trichromatic ("three colors") theory

• theory of color vision that proposes three types of cones: red, blue, and green.

afterimages

• images that occur when a visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed.

oppenent-process theory

• theory of color vision that proposes visual neurons (or groups of neurons) are stimulated by light of one color and inhabited by light of another color.

color blindness

• a variety of disorders marked by inability to distinguish some or all colors.

EARS 3.7-3.9

Hertz (Hz)

• cycles or waves per second, a measurement of frequency.

pinna

• the visible part of the ear.

auditory canal

• short tunnel that runs from the pinna to the eardrum.

cochlea

• snail-shaped structure of the inner ear that is filled with fluid.

auditory nerve

• bundle of axons from the hair cells in the inner ear.

pitch

• psychological experience of sound that corresponds to the frequency of the sound waves; higher frequencies are perceived as higher pitches.

place theory

• Theory of pitch that states different pitches are experienced by the stimulation of hair cells in different locations on the organ of Corti.

Frequency theory

• theory of pitch that states that pitch is related to the speed of vibrations in the basilar membrane.

volley principle

• theory of pitch that states that frequencies from about 400 Hz to 4000 Hz cause the hair cells (auditory neurons) to fire in a volley pattern, or take turns in firing.

Gustation

• the sensation of taste.

NOSE/SMELL/NASAL STILL CHAPTER 3

olfaction (olfactory sense)

• the sensation of smell.

olfactory bulbs

• two bulb-like projections of the brain located just above the sinus cavity and just below the frontal lobes that receive information from the olfactory receptor cells.

somesthetic senses

• the body senses consisting of the skin senses, the kinesthetic sense, and the vestibular senses.

kinesthesia

• the awareness of body movement.

Proprioception

• awareness of where the body and body parts are located in relation to each other in space, and to the ground.

vestibular sense

• the awareness of the balance, position, and movement of the body through space in relation to gravity's pull.

sensory conflict theory

• an explanation of motion sickness in which the information from the eyes conflicts with the information from the vestibular senses, resulting in dizziness, nausea, and other physical discomfort.

Biofeedback

• using feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses, such as blood pressure and relaxation, under voluntary control.

Perception

• the method by which the sensations experienced at any given moment are interpreted and organized in some meaningful fashion.

size constancy

• the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance.

shape constancy

• the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina.

brightness constancy

• the tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same even when the light conditions change.

figure-ground

• the tendency to perceive objects, or figures, as existing on a background.

reversible figures

• visual illusions in which the figure and ground can be reversed.

proximity

• a Gestalt principle of perception, the tendency to perceive objects that are close to each other as part of the same grouping; physical or geographical nearness.

similarity

• a Gestalt principle of perception, the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group.

closure

• a Gestalt principle of organization holding that there is an innate tendency to perceive incomplete objects as complete and to close or fill gaps and to perceive asymmetric stimuli as symmetric.

Continuity

• a Gestalt principle of perception, the tendency to perceive things as simply as possible with a continuous pattern rather than with a complex, broken-up pattern.

contiguity

• a Gestalt principle of perception, the tendency to perceive two things that happen close together in time as being related.

Depth Perception

• the ability to perceive the world in three dimensions.

monocular cues (pictorial depth cues)

• cues for perceiving depth based on one eye only.

binocular cues

• cues for perceiving depth based on both eyes.

linear perspective

• monocular depth perception cue, the tendency for parallel lines to appear to converge on each other.

relative size

• monocular depth perception cue, perception that occurs when objects that a person expects to be of a certain size appear to be small and are, therefore, assumed to be much farther away.

Interposition

• monocular depth perception cue, the assumption that an object that appears to be blocking part of another object is in front of the second object and closer to the viewer.

aerial (atmospheric) perspective

• monocular depth perception cue, the haziness that surrounds objects that are farther away from the viewer, causing the distance to be perceived as greater.

texture gradient

• monocular depth perception cue, the tendency for textured surfaces to appear to become smaller and finer as distance from the viewer increases.

motion parallax

• monocular depth perception cue, the perception of motion of objects in which close objects appear to move more quickly than objects that are farther away.

accommodation

• as a monocular clue, the brain's use of information about the changing thickness of the lens of the eye in response to looking at objects that are close or far away.

convergence

• binocular depth perception cue, the rotation of the two eyes in their sockets to focus on a single object, resulting in greater convergence for closer objects and lesser convergence if objects are distant.

binocular disparity

• binocular depth perception cue, the difference in images between the two eyes, which is greater for objects that are close and smaller for distant objects.

illusion

• (n.) a false idea; something that one seems to see or to be aware that really does not exist.

CHAPTER 4 YAYYYYY CONCIOUSNESS

waking consciousness

• state in which thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear, organized, and the person feels alert.

Consiousness

• a person's awareness of everything that is going on around him or her at any given moment.

altered state of conciousness

• state in which there is a shift in the quality or pattern of mental activity as compared to waking conciousness.

SLEEP 4.3-4.6 PGS 154

circadian rhythm

• a cycle of bodily rhythm that occurs over a 24-hour period.

microsleeps

• brief sidesteps into sleep lasting only a few seconds.

adaptive theory

• theory of sleep proposing that animals and humans evolved sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when predators are most active.

restorative theory

• theory of sleep proposing that sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body and serves to replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage.

sleep-deprivation

• any significant loss of sleep, resulting in problems in concentration and irritability.

rapid eye movement sleep (R, REM)

• stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is typically experiencing a dream.

non-REM (NREM) sleep

• any of the stages of sleep that do not include REM.

  

beta waves

• smaller and faster brain waves, typically indicating mental activity.

alpha waves

• brain waves that indicate a state of relaxation or light sleep.

theta waves

• brain waves indicating the early stages of sleep. (1-2)

delta waves

• long, slow waves that indicate the deepest stage of sleep. (3)

sleep paralysis

• the inability of the voluntary muscles to move during REM sleep.

REM behavior disorder (RBD)

• a rare disorder in which the mechanism that blocks the movement of the voluntary muscles fails, allowing the person to thrash around and even get up and act out nightmares.

REM rebound

• increased amounts of REM sleep after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights.

nightmares

• bad dreams occurring during REM sleep.

night terrors

• relatively rare disorder in which the person experiences extreme fear and screams or runs around during deep sleep without waking fully.

sleepwalking (somnambulism)

• occurring during deep sleep, an episode of moving around or walking around in one's sleep.

insomnia

• the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get a good quality of sleep.

sleep apnea

• disorder in which the person stops breathing for 10 seconds or more.

Narcolepsy

• sleep disorder in which a person falls immediately into REM sleep during the day without warning.

DREAM HYPOTHESIS 4.7-4.8 DREAMS

Freud's interpretation of dreams

• wish fulfillment- conflicts events and desires represented in symbolic form in dreams.

activation-synthesis hypothesis

• premise that states that dreams are created by the higher centers of the cortex to explain the activation by the brain stem of cortical cells during REM sleep periods.

activation-information-mode model (AIM)

• revised version of the activation-synthesis explanation of dreams in which information that is accessed during waking hours can have an influence on the synthesis of dreams.

HYPNOSIS 4.9-4.10

hypnosis

• state of consciousness in which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion.

dissociation

• divided state of conscious awareness.

social-cognitive theory of hypnosis

• theory that assumes that people who are hypnotized are not in an altered state but are merely playing the role expected of them in the situation.

DRUGS 4.11-4.14

psychoactive drugs

• chemical substances that alter thinking, perception, and memory.

physical dependence

• condition occurring when a person's body becomes unable to function normally without a particular drug.

withdrawl

• physical symptoms that can include nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness, and high blood pressure, resulting from a lack of an addictive drug in the body systems.

drug tolerance

• the decrease of the response to a drug over repeated uses, leading to the need for higher doses of drug to achieve the same effect.

psychological dependence

• the belief that the drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-being.

stimulants

• drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous system.

deepressants

• drugs that decrease the functioning of the nervous system.

Hallucinogenics

• drugs including hallucinogens and marijuana that produce hallucinations or increased feelings of relaxation and intoxication.

Amphetamines

• stimulants that are synthesized (made) in laboratories rather than being found in nature.

Cocaine

• a natural drug derived from the leaves of the coca plant (stimulant)

nicotine

• The addictive drug found in tobacco.

Caffine

• a mild stimulant found in coffee, tea, and several other plant-based substances.

Barbiturates

• depressant drugs that have a sedative effect.

Benzodiazepines

• drugs that lower anxiety and reduce stress.

Alcohol

• the chemical resulting from fermentation or distillation of various kinds of vegetable matter.

opiates

• a class of opium-related drugs that suppress the sensation of pain by binding to and stimulating the nervous system's natural receptor sites for endorphins.

opium

• substance derived from the opium poppy from which all narcotic drugs are derived.

morphines

• narcotic drug derived from opium, used to treat severe pain.

heroin

• narcotic drug derived from opium that is extremely addictive.

opioids

• synthetic drugs that mimic the pain-reducing effects of opiates and their addictive properties.

hallucinogens

• drugs that cause false sensory messages, altering the perception of reality.

LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)

• a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid.

PCP

• synthesized drug now used as an animal tranquilizer that can cause stimulant, depressant, narcotic, or hallucinogenic effects.

MDMA (Ecstasy or X)

• designer drugs that can have both stimulant and hallucinatory effects.

stimulatory hallucinogenics

• drugs that produce a mixture of psychomotor stimulant and hallucinogenic effects.

Marajuana (THC)

• mild hallucinogen; positive: enhanced sensation, relief of pain, distortion of time, relaxation; negative: impaired learning and memory, increased risk of psychological disorders, lung damage from smoke.

CHAPTER 5 LEARNING

learning

• any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice.

CONDITIONING 5.2-5.3

classical conditioning

reflex

• an involuntary response, one that is not under personal control or choice.

unconditioned stimulus (US, UCS)

• in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response. (FOOD)

unconditioned response (UR, UCR)

• in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. (SALVATING WHILE COMING IN CONTACT WITH FOOD)

neutral stimulus (NS)

• in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. (THE BELL NO REACTION)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

• in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response. (RINGING BELL WHILE IIN PRESENCE OF FOOD)

conditioned response (CR)

• in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). (SALVATING WITHOUT FOOD BUT WHEN BELL RINGS)

stimulus generalization

• the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response.

stimulus discrimination

• the tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Extinction

• the disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or the removal of a reinforcer (in operant conditioning).

spontaneous recovery

• the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

higher-order conditioning

• a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.).

cognitive perspective

• modern perspective that focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem solving, and learning.

Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)

• emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli, such as a fear of dogs or the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person.

vicarious conditioning

• classical conditioning of an involuntary response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person.

conditioned taste aversion

• development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction, occurring after only one association.

Phobias

• irrational fears of specific objects or situations.

OPERANT CONDITIONING 5.4-5.9

operant conditioning

• the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses.

law of effect

• law stating that if an action is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated (thornedike).

operant

• any behavior that is voluntary and not elicited by specific stimuli.

Reinforcement

• any event or stimulus, that when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again.

reinforcers

• any events or objects that, when following a response, increase the likelihood of that response occurring again.

primary reinforcer

• any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch. (MOMMY DADDY)

secondary reinforcer

• any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars. (TEACHER)

positive reinforcement

• the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experiencing of a pleasurable stimulus.

negative reinforcement

• the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus.

partial reinforcement effect

• the tendency for a response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses to be very resistant to extinction.

Continuous reinforcement

• the reinforcement of each and every correct response.

fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement

• schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same.

variable interval schedule of reinforcement

• schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event.

fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement

• schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same.

variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement

• schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event.

punishment

• any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again.

punishment by application

• the punishment of a response by the addition or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus.

punishment by removal

• the punishment of a response by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus.

discriminative stimulus

• any stimulus, such as a stop sign or a doorknob, that provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement.

Shaping

• the reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to a desired, more complex behavior.

instinctive drift

• tendency for an animal's behavior to revert to genetically controlled patterns.

behavior modification

• the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior.

token economy

• the use of objects called tokens to reinforce behavior in which the tokens can be accumulated and exchanged for desired items or privileges.

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

• modern term for a form of behavior modification that uses shaping techniques to mold a desired behavior or response.

Neurofeedback

• form of biofeedback using brain-scanning devices to provide feedback about brain activity in an effort to modify behavior.

biofeedback

• using feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses, such as blood pressure and relaxation, under voluntary control.

LEARNING TYPES 5.11

latent learning

• learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful.

insight

• the sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly.

learned helplessness

• the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past.

observational learning

• learning by observing others; also called social learning

learning/performance distinction

• referring to the observation that learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior.

CHAPTER 6 MEMORY

memory

• an active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form, and organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage.

encoding

• the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

• holding onto information for some period of time.

retrival

• getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used.

information processing model

• model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages.

parallel distributed processing (PDP)

• a model of memory in which knowledge is represented as connections among thousands of interacting processing units, distributed in a vast network, and all operating in parallel.

levels of processing model

• model of memory that assumes information that is more "deeply processed," or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time.

sensory memory

• the very system memory, in which raw information from the senses is held for a very brief period of time.

iconic (eye) memory

• visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second.

eidetic memory

• the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure. (30 sec or more)

echoic (ear, auditory) memory

• auditory sensory memory, lasting only 3-4 seconds

short-term memory (STM)

• the memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used.

selective attention

• the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input.

Working Memory

• an active system that processes the information in short-term memory.

maintenance rehearsal

• practice of saying some information to be remembered over and over in one's head in order to maintain it in short-term memory.

long-term memory (LTM)

• the system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently.

elaborative rehearsal

• a way of increasing the number of retrieval cues for information by connecting new information with something that is already well known.

nondeclarative (implicit) memory

• type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses. These memories are not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behavior.

anterograde amnesia

• loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories.

declarative (explicit) memory

• type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known.

semantic memory

• type of declarative memory containing general knowledge, such as knowledge of language and information learned in formal education.

episodic memory

• type of declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others, such as daily activities and events.

semantic network model

• model of memory organization that assumes information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion, with concepts that are related stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related.

encoding specificity

• the tendency for memory of information to be improved if related information (such as surroundings or physiological state) available when the memory is first formed is also available when the memory is being retrieved.

recall

• type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be "pulled" from memory with very few external cues.

recognition

• the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact.

serial position effect

• tendency of information at the beginning and end of a body of information to be remembered more accurately than information in the middle of the body of information.

primacy effect

• tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows.

recency effect

• tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well.

automatic encoding

• tendency of certain kinds of information to enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding.

flashbulb memories

• type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it.

constructive processing

• referring to the retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised, or influenced by newer information.

hindsight bias

• the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

misinformation effect

• the tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself.

FORGETTIING 6.10-6.11

Curve of forgetting (Ebbinghaus)

1. a graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a list and then tapers off gradually. WITHIN FIRST HOUR AFTER LEARNING

distributed practice

• spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods.

encoding failure

• failure to process information into memory.

memory trace

• physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed.

decay

• loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used.

disuse

• another name for decay, assuming that memories that are not used will eventually decay and disappear.

proactive interference

• memory problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the learning or retrieval of newer information. (YOU SAY OLD PHONE NUMBER WHEN ASKED FOR NEW ONE)

retrograde interference

• memory retrieval problem that occurs when newer information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older information. (YOU SAY NEW ONE WHEN ASKED FOR OLD)

consolidation

• the changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neurons when a memory is formed.

retrograde amnesia

• loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past.

Alzheimer's disease

• a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with an onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities.

Infantile amnesia

• the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3.

autobiographical memory

• the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story.

Sigmund Freud

• Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

Wilhem Wundt (1879)

• father of psychology

Albert Bandura

• pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play.

Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning)

• Showed the existence of the unconditioned response by presenting a dog with a bowl of food and the measuring its salivary secretions. The assistant that always brought the dog the food also made it salivate.

B.F. Skinner

• Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats.

Jean Piaget

• Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational. He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation and accomodation.