Revolutions in the Atlantic World

Factors behind the age of revolution in the Atlantic World
American independence: How and why did American colonists forge a new nation?
Constitutional monarchy in France: How did the events of 1789 lead to its establishment and what were the consequences?
Haitian Independence: How did the slave revolt in colonial Saint Domingue enable Haiti's independence in 1804?
Rebellions in Spanish and Portuguese colonies: What motivated these groups against European rule?

Foundation of ideas: Various ideas and factors needed for revolutions lay groundwork.
- Enlightenment philosophy advocated for liberty and equality.
- Crises from international wars created a demand for change.
- Deep inequalities: Nobility and clergy owned most land with minimal tax obligations.
- Wealthy merchants pushed for more political power, while New World creoles and mestizos sought greater rights.

Spreading ideas of liberty and equality became central during the Enlightenment period.
- People increasingly demanded a voice in government and legislative representation.
- Thinkers like John Locke argued that revolutions are justified against governments that infringe on citizens' natural rights.
Persisting inequalities: Despite progress, women, children, the poor, enslaved individuals, and Indigenous populations were still marginalized.
- Democratic philosophers favored representation from a elite 'natural aristocracy'.

Global conflict: The Seven Years’ War involved significant battles across continents.
- British victories over France and Spain altered dynamic of colonial power.
- Resulted in questioning the idea of salutary neglect in colonial governance.

British mercantilism: Conflicted with colonial traditions leading to rising tensions.
Call for taxes: Parliament began taxing colonies due to post-war problems and desires for western expansion.
- Example events: Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763) and Proclamation Line of 1763.

Representation concepts: Divergence between Actual Representation and Virtual Representation.
Sovereignty issues: Discussions on governance and whether an empire can maintain divided sovereignty.

Impact of Glorious Revolution shaped Locke’s views on Parliament supremacy and Social Contract Theory.
- The community consents to governance but retains the right to revolt against abusive power.
- Promoted mixed government principles to balance power and democracy.

Intentional weaknesses: Created a structure with one state, one vote, and no ability to tax.
Challenges faced: The Money Problem, rural unrest (i.e., Shays’s Rebellion) indicated inefficiencies leading to the need for a stronger government.

Introduced several plans for governance including the Virginia Plan, New Jersey Plan, and Great Compromise.
Highlighted principles such as federalist arguments in the Federalist Papers and the necessity of a Bill of Rights.

Defined as Congress which comprises the House and Senate.
- Enumerated powers: Specifically listed powers including taxation and war declarations.
- Implied powers: Can be derived from the Elastic Clause, enabling adaptability in governance.

Structure established in Article II of the Constitution.
- Responsibilities: Enforces laws, serves as Commander in Chief, and nominates federal officials.

Established under Article III, it includes the Supreme Court.
- Powers: Interprets laws, reviews cases, and ensures conflict resolution between states.

Economic distress led to revolutionary actions.
- Events of 1788 spurred the Estates General calling, where the Third Estate advocated for equal voting.
- Violence erupted after the storming of the Bastille, leading to the establishment of the National Assembly.

The National Assembly implemented drastic changes:
- Abolished feudal privileges and aged privileges of the Catholic Church.
- The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was issued emphasizing equality.
Louis XVI stripped of power; radical shifts led to his and Marie Antoinette's execution.

Revolutionary France faced international opposition and internal conflicts.
- Formation of the Committee of Public Safety, leading to the Reign of Terror with mass executions.
- Ended when Napoleon Bonaparte assumed control.

A brilliant general, later an emperor, Napoleon made significant reforms such as the Napoleonic Code promoting equality and property rights.
- He dominated Europe until the tide turned post-1812 following his failed invasion of Russia.

Saint Domingue was crucial to France’s economy but marked by severe oppression.
- The rebellion in 1791 under Toussaint L’Ouverture led to chaos, civil war, and eventual independence of Haiti in 1804.

Rebellion arose from dissatisfaction among creoles and mestizos against Peninsulares.
- Simon Bolivar was instrumental in liberating territories and forming new republics; outcomes varied greatly.

Revolutions had complex results, leading to social elites retaining power in post-revolutionary societies.
Slavery declined in many regions but persisted longer in others like Brazil.