Nationalism and Imperialism in 19th Century Europe

3rd French Republic & Nationalism

Context: Colonization in Africa from the perspective of the French.
Nationalism Defined: A feeling of strong identification with one’s own people and heritage.
- Strengthened by shared history and language.
- Essential components of the nation-state:
- Nation: People who share a common language and culture.
- State: The territory they inhabit, marked by borders and governed by a political structure.
Impact of Nationalism: It drives people to demand their own state.

Romantic Idealism: A cultural movement that glorified the past and inspired emotional fervor for people to reclaim their heritage.
- Notable figures:
- Grimm Brothers: Compiled German folktales, emphasizing national culture.
- Victor Hugo: A prominent French writer contributing to the nationalism narrative.

Political Reforms Under Napoleon III:
- Promotion of national trade through international cooperation stimulated the economy.
- Implementation of male suffrage, increasing political participation.
Unification of Italy:
- Giuseppe Mazzini: An advocate for Italian unification, through movements such as Young Italy which staged uprisings towards the goal of a unified nation.

Growing idea of racial superiority, leading to differentiation between races.
- Positive Pan-Slavism: Aim to unite Slavic peoples, particularly against the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires, with support from Russia.
- Negative Effects: Rise in anti-Semitic beliefs, historically marginalizing Jewish communities across Europe.

Dreyfus Affair:
- Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish captain in the French Army, unjustly accused of treason, revealing deep-seated anti-Semitism and dividing French society.
Eastern European Pogroms: Jews violently evicted and attacked, prompting the rise of Zionism.
- Theodor Herzl: A key figure advocating for a Jewish homeland in Palestine and initiating the movement for the establishment of Israel.

Metternich and the Concert of Europe
- Attempted to maintain conservative order throughout Europe through diplomatic means.
Otto von Bismarck:
- Utilized nationalism in his foreign policy for German unification; transitioned from prime minister to chancellor during this transformative period.

Conflict after the revolutions of 1848 led to unsuccessful attempts to suppress Hungarian nationalism, resulting in the establishment of a dual monarchy in Austria-Hungary.

Background: Crumbling stability of the Ottoman Empire due to nationalist movements within.
- Sparked by religious tensions and the desire of France and Russia to weaken Ottoman control.
- Outcome: Russia's defeat; significant impact on the balance of power in Europe, leading to the breakdown of the Concert of Europe.

Count Cavour: Prime Minister of Piedmont, crucial in unifying Italy through strategic diplomacy, military strength, and alliances, particularly with France, despite challenges posed by Austria.
Giuseppe Garibaldi: Led the 'Red Shirts' in the unification of Southern Italy, capitulating to northern leadership under Victor Emmanuel II.
Franco-Prussian War Influence: Conflict led to the final unification of Italy after French withdrawal from Central Italian territories.

Bismarck’s Strategy: Utilized Realpolitik to achieve unity; focused on practical outcomes rather than moral considerations.
Key Wars:
- Prussian-Danish War (1864): Aims to reclaim German-speaking territories from Denmark.
- Austro-Prussian War (1866): Provoked Austria while solidifying German territories under Prussian control.
- Franco-Prussian War (1870): Provoke war with France to rally other German states under Prussian leadership, culminating in German victory and establishment of the German Empire with Kaiser Wilhelm I.

Three Emperor’s League: Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia to manage Eastern European tensions, ultimately failing.
Reinsurance Treaty: Security agreement ensuring neutrality between Germany and Russia under specific conditions.
Triple Alliance: Military pact with Austria-Hungary and Italy, aimed against France.

Congress of Berlin (1878): Attempted to maintain the balance of power but only intensified nationalist tensions among multiple ethnic groups seeking independence from the Ottomans.
Balkan Wars: Further escalated tensions across Europe and laid the groundwork for WWI.

Charles Darwin: Introduced the theory of evolution, implying that species evolve over time through natural selection.
- Published On the Origin of Species and The Descent of Man, stirring controversy by suggesting human evolution from lower forms.
Social Darwinism: Relating Darwin’s theories to human society, justifying imperialism and racial superiority.
- Advocates like Herbert Spencer applied these ideas to social structures, claiming that stronger societies were destined to thrive while weaker ones would perish.

Positivism: Philosophical stance asserting that real knowledge is solely based on scientific observation and mathematical proof, dismissing metaphysical speculation.
Relativism: A consequence of positivism, suggesting that truth is subjective and varies based on perspective, likened to the blind men interpreting an elephant.

Modern Art Movements: Emphasized emotional expression and individualism over realism, inspired literature and visual arts.
- Key figures: Joseph Conrad criticized imperialistic attitudes; Eugène Delacroix, a Romantic artist known for emotion-driven techniques.
Post-Impressionism vs Cubism: Artistic response evolving to express deeper emotional and abstract symbolism.