Bio 322 Lab Exam 2 - Major Topics Overview

Bio 322 Lab Exam 2 Major Topics

This exam will be the same format as Exam 1. It is crucial to read over the lab handouts as everything in the lab handouts from Labs 5, 6, and 7 is fair game for the exam. The only concepts from earlier labs that are included are the solute table and lab math. Ensure to know all bolded vocabulary and understand the major concepts in each lab, as detailed below:

Lab 5: Blood Vessels

  • Conduction of Heart Signal and PQRST Wave

    • The heart conducts electrical signals that result in the PQRST wave as measured in an electrocardiogram (ECG).

  • Anatomy of Veins, Arteries, and Capillaries

    • Layers of Blood Vessels:

    • Tunica Intima: Innermost layer that provides a smooth lining for blood flow.

    • Tunica Media: Middle layer consisting of smooth muscle and elastic tissue, allowing for vessel contraction and dilation.

    • Tunica Externa (Adventitia): Outermost layer providing support and protection.

    • Valves: Present in veins to prevent backflow of blood.

    • Role of Smooth Muscle: Helps regulate blood pressure and flow through contraction.

  • Histology of Vein vs. Artery (Cross-Section)

    • Differences in structure between veins and arteries can be observed histologically; arteries have thicker walls and smaller lumens compared to veins which have larger lumens and thinner walls.

  • Which Vessels are High Oxygen and High Pressure

    • Arteries typically carry oxygenated blood under high pressure except for pulmonary arteries, which carry deoxygenated blood.

  • Understanding Blood Pressure

    • Systolic Pressure: The pressure in arteries during the contraction of the heart.

    • Diastolic Pressure: The pressure in arteries when the heart is at rest between beats.

    • Hypertension: A chronic condition where blood pressure is consistently elevated, posing health risks.

  • Understanding Pulse

    • The pulse is a measure of the heart rate and reflects the rhythm of blood flow through arteries.

  • List of Vessels to Identify and/or Trace the Pathway of Blood

    • Students should know the major vessels such as the aorta, vena cava, pulmonary arteries, and veins that blood travels through.

  • Common Vessel Pathology

    • Aneurism: A bulge in an artery wall.

    • Varicose Veins: Enlarged veins that often appear swollen and raised, typically occurring in the legs.

    • Arteriosclerosis: Thickening and hardening of the artery walls, often leading to cardiovascular diseases.

Lab 6: Cardiodynamics

  • Variables that Impact Cardiac Output

    • Heart Rate (HR): Influenced by the autonomic nervous system's impact that increases or decreases heart rate.

    • Stroke Volume (SV): The amount of blood pumped out of the heart with each beat.

    • End-Diastolic Volume (EDV): The volume of blood in the ventricles at the end of filling (diastole).

    • End-Systolic Volume (ESV): The volume of blood remaining in a ventricle after contraction (systole).

    • Impact of SV and ESV on cardiac output, considering factors such as contractility, venous return, preload, and afterload impact.

  • How Resistance and Pressure Impact Blood Flow

    • Blood flow is influenced by the pressure gradient and vascular resistance; a higher pressure difference leads to increased flow, while greater resistance decreases flow.

  • Postural Changes and Blood Pressure

    • Why Laying to Standing Typically Drops Pressure: Upon standing, blood pools in the lower extremities, reducing venous return to the heart and resulting in a temporary drop in blood pressure.

    • Why Elevating Legs Impacts Blood Pressure: Elevating legs facilitates venous return, increasing blood volume returning to the heart and thereby increasing blood pressure.

  • Skeletal Muscle Pump

    • The mechanism where the contraction of skeletal muscles compresses veins, aiding venous return and maintaining blood flow toward the heart.

  • Respiratory Muscle Pump

    • The action of respiratory muscles changes thoracic pressure during breathing, assisting venous return similarly to the skeletal muscle pump.

Lab 7: Respiratory

  • Anatomy and Pathway of Air

    • Understanding the route air takes upon entering the body through the nasal cavity or oral cavity to the lungs, including the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles.

  • Histology of Respiratory System Tissues

    • Knowledge of the various tissue types comprising the respiratory system including epithelial lining, alveoli structure etc.

  • Role of Respiratory Membrane and Specialized Cells

    • The respiratory membrane facilitates gas exchange; specialized cells like type I and type II alveolar cells have specific functions in gas exchange and surfactant production respectively.

  • Ventilation vs. External and Internal Respiration

    • Ventilation: The process of air moving in and out of the lungs.

    • External Respiration: Gas exchange between the air in the alveoli and blood in the pulmonary capillaries.

    • Internal Respiration: The exchange of gases between blood and body tissues.

  • Muscles of Breathing

    • Major muscles involved include the diaphragm, external intercostals, internal intercostals, and accessory muscles during forced breathing.

  • How Pressure and Volume Changes Result in Inhalation/Exhalation

    • Boyle's Law: The inverse relationship between pressure and volume; when thoracic volume increases during inhalation, pressure decreases, leading to air influx.

    • During exhalation, the volume decreases, thus pressure increases, pushing air out of the lungs.

  • Common Respiratory Disorders

    • Knowledge of conditions affecting the respiratory system such as asthma, COPD, pneumonia, and their physiological implications.

  • Spirometry Measurements/Identifying Parts of Spirogram

    • Understanding different lung volumes and capacities such as Tidal Volume (TV), Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV), Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV), and others relevant to respiratory function assessment.

  • Role of CO2 in Blood pH

    • The balance between carbon dioxide and pH is critical for homeostasis; excess CO2 can lead to respiratory acidosis, while insufficient CO2 can cause respiratory alkalosis.

    • Hyperventilation: Excessive breathing leading to decreased CO2 in blood (3pH), potentially resulting in dizziness and tingling.

    • Hypoventilation: Insufficient breathing leading to increased CO2 in blood (2pH) and potential respiratory acidosis.

  • Molarity and Osmolarity and Solute Table

    • Critical understanding of solute concentration and the calculations involved in determining molarity (mol/dm³) and osmolarity (osmoles/dm³), vital for understanding cellular functions and fluid balance in the body.