AP HUMAN GEOGRAPHY VOCAB

absolute distance – The physical space between two places measured in units like miles or kilometers.
age-sex composition graph – A population pyramid showing age and gender distribution.
acculturation – Adopting some cultural traits of another group while keeping your own.
administered boundary – A border managed and enforced by a government or authority.
(draining) wetlands – Removing water from wetlands to convert them for other land uses.
affordability – How financially accessible housing or services are to people.
agglomeration economies – Cost savings from businesses clustering together.
absolute location – Exact position on Earth using coordinates like latitude and longitude.
agricultural population density – Number of farmers per unit of arable land.
adage – A short, common saying expressing a general truth.
African Union – A political and economic union of African countries promoting unity and development.
(global) supply chain – Worldwide system of producing and delivering goods.
annexation – Adding territory to a country or city.
assembly line – A production method where each worker does one specific task repeatedly.
accessibility – Ease of reaching a place or service.
antinatalist policies – Government efforts to reduce birth rates.
adherent – A follower or supporter of a belief or religion.
allocational boundary dispute (resource dispute) – Conflict over resources located at or near a boundary.
agribusiness – Commercial agriculture operated like a business, often with vertical integration.
bedroom communities – Suburbs where people live but commute elsewhere for work.
back offices – Office functions like data entry or support services, often located away from headquarters.
aerial photography – Photos of the Earth taken from aircraft or satellites for mapping and analysis.
arable – Land suitable for growing crops.
animism – The belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a spiritual essence.
agricultural hearth – The place where agriculture first developed and spread from.
bid-rent theory – Explains how land value decreases as distance from the central business district increases.
backwash effects – Negative impacts on one region caused by the economic growth of another.
aggregation – The grouping of data or people into clusters for analysis.
arithmetic population density – Total population divided by total land area.
artifacts – Physical objects made or used by humans, often culturally significant.
antecedent boundary – A boundary drawn before a large population was present.
agriculture – The science or practice of farming.
blockbusting – The practice of encouraging white homeowners to sell due to fear of minority groups moving in.
barter – Exchange of goods and services without using money.
analyze – To examine in detail for explanation or interpretation.
asylum – Protection given to someone fleeing persecution in another country.
assimilation – When a minority group adopts the cultural traits of the dominant group.
Arctic Council – Intergovernmental forum promoting cooperation among Arctic states and indigenous peoples.
animal domestication – The taming and breeding of animals for human use.
boomburbs – Rapidly growing suburban cities that remain suburban in character.
basic economic activity – Jobs that bring income from outside the local area.
built environment – Human-made surroundings like buildings, roads, and infrastructure.
baby boom – A significant increase in birth rates, especially post-WWII.
blue laws – Laws restricting activities (like business operations) on Sundays.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) – A regional group promoting economic and political cooperation in Southeast Asia.
aquaculture (aquafarming) – Raising fish or aquatic plants for food.
Borchert's transportation model – Describes urban growth in relation to transport technology over time.
break of bulk point – A location where goods are transferred from one transport type to another.
cartogram – A map in which data is represented by the size of areas, not geographic accuracy.
baby bust – A period of declining birth rates after a baby boom.
Buddhism – A religion based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha).
autonomous region – An area with some degree of political self-rule.
bid-price curve (bid-rent curve) – Shows how much someone is willing to pay for land at various distances from the city center.
brownfields – Abandoned or underused industrial areas with potential environmental contamination.
cartographic scale – The ratio of a map’s distance to the actual ground distance.
birth deficit – A period with fewer births than normal, often after a war or crisis.
balkanization – The fragmentation of a region into smaller, hostile units.
census block – The smallest geographic unit used by the U.S. Census Bureau.
bulk-gaining industries – Industries where the final product is heavier or bulkier than its inputs.
choropleth map – A map that uses colors or shading to show data density.
Boserup Theory – Suggests that population growth drives agricultural innovation.
caste system – A rigid social class system in Hinduism.
Berlin Conference – 1884 meeting where European powers divided Africa without African input.
Blue Revolution – Growth of aquaculture to meet food demand.
census tracts – Small areas used by the Census Bureau for analyzing populations.
bulk-reducing industries – Industries where the final product is lighter than the raw materials.
circular distribution – A pattern where features are evenly spaced around a central point.
brain drain – The emigration of educated or skilled workers from a country.
centrifugal forces – Forces that divide a state, such as ethnic conflict or political unrest.
census – A count of a population, typically every ten years.
capital – Money, property, or goods used to produce other goods and services.
central business district (CBD) – The commercial and business center of a city.
colonialism – The practice of controlling another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.
clustered (agglomerated) distribution – A spatial pattern where features are grouped closely together.
carrying capacity – The maximum population an environment can support.
centripetal forces – Forces that unify a state, like shared language or culture.
capital intensive – Production requiring large amounts of investment in machinery.
central place theory (Christaller) – Explains the size and spacing of cities as centers of services.
commodities – Raw materials or primary agricultural products that can be bought and sold.
community-based solutions – Local approaches to solving social or environmental issues.
chain migration – Migration where people follow others from their community.
charter group – The dominant first group to settle and establish norms in an area.
citadel – A fortified center of a city, often on high ground.
commodity dependence – Relying heavily on one or a few export products.
concept – An abstract idea or general notion.
cohorts – Groups of people with a shared characteristic, often age.
Christianity – A monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus.
choke point – A strategic narrow route providing passage through or to another region.
center-pivot irrigation – A circular irrigation system using rotating sprinklers.
city-state – An independent city with its own government and territory.
comparative advantage – The ability to produce something at a lower opportunity cost than others.
Conic Projection – A map projection shaped like a cone over the Earth, good for midlatitudes.
counter migration – Return of migrants to their original location.
Cold War – A period of political tension and military rivalry between the U.S. and USSR post-WWII.
climate – The long-term average of weather patterns in a region.
complementarity – When two places each have something the other needs.
connectivity – The degree to which places are linked by transport or communication.
crude birth rate (CBR) – Number of births per 1,000 people in a year.
contemporary architecture – Modern building styles using new materials and technology.
colonial CBD – Colonial-era central business district with old-style architecture.
containerization – Shipping method using standardized containers for efficiency.
cultural ecology – Study of how humans adapt to environments.
crude death rate (CDR) – Number of deaths per 1,000 people in a year.
contagious diffusion – Rapid, widespread diffusion of a trend or idea.
contiguous zone – Coastal area up to 24 nautical miles where a state can enforce laws.
Columbian Exchange – Transfer of goods, diseases, and ideas between Old and New Worlds.
commensal relationship – One species benefits while the other is unaffected.
corporate parks (business parks) – Areas with office buildings for business use, often suburban.
cultural landscape – The visible imprint of human activity on the land.
demographic balancing equation – Population change = births - deaths + immigration - emigration.
creole language – A stable natural language developed from mixing languages.
controlled border – A regulated and monitored national border.
commercial agriculture – Farming for sale, not just for the farmer’s use.
commercial spine – A major road in Latin American cities lined with businesses.
cottage industry – Small-scale production at home by hand.
direction – The course along which something moves.
demographic momentum – Population growth continues despite declining fertility rates.
cultural appropriation – Adoption of elements of one culture by another, often controversially.
cracking – Splitting voters of a group across districts to weaken their influence.
commercial gardening – Growing fruits, vegetables, and flowers for sale.
concentric zone model (Burgess) – Urban model with rings of development around a central core.
deindustrialize – Decline in industrial activity in a region or economy.
dispersed distribution – A pattern where features are spread far apart.
demographic transition model – Explains changes in birth and death rates over time.
cultural complex – A group of cultural traits that define a particular culture.
cultural boundary – A boundary that follows differences in cultural traits.
commodity chain – Linked steps in production and distribution of a product.
conurbation – A continuous urban area formed by merging cities.
dependency model (theory) – Theory that underdevelopment in some nations is due to dependence on core countries.
distance – The space between two points or locations.
dependency ratio – Ratio of dependents (young and old) to working-age people.
cultural convergence – The process of cultures becoming more alike.
cultural consequent boundary – Boundary drawn to reflect cultural differences.
community gardens – Shared gardens used for growing food locally.
counter-urbanization (deurbanization) – Movement from cities to rural areas.
ecological footprint – The land and resources a person or population uses.
distance decay – Decreasing interaction with increasing distance.
dependent population – People under 15 or over 64 who rely on the working population.
cultural divergence – When cultures become less similar over time.
decolonization – Process of colonies gaining independence.
community-supported agriculture (CSA) – Local food system where consumers invest in farms.
decentralization – Shifting power from central government to local authorities.
economies of scale – Cost advantages gained with increased production.
distribution – How something is spread across space.
cultural hearth – The origin point of a cultural trait or idea.
defined boundary – A boundary established by a legal document.
disamenity zone – Poor urban areas lacking services.
ecotourism – Environmentally responsible travel to natural areas.
dot distribution map – Uses dots to show frequency or concentration of features.
echo – A second population boom caused by baby boomers’ children.
definitional boundary dispute – Conflict over the legal language of a boundary.
cool chains – Temperature-controlled supply chains for perishable goods.
export processing zones (EPZs) – Areas where goods can be manufactured for export with relaxed regulations.
elevation – Height above sea level.
emigrant – A person who leaves their country to live elsewhere.
delimited boundary – A boundary drawn on a map.
crop gap – Difference between actual and potential crop yields.
ecumene – Land that is permanently inhabited and used by humans.
footloose – Industries not tied to specific locations due to transport or labor.
environmental determinism – Theory that the environment shapes human culture.
emigrants – People who leave their country to settle elsewhere.
economic data – Data related to the economy, such as GDP or income levels.
cultural realms – Large areas with shared cultural traits.
demographic data – Statistics relating to populations, such as age, gender, or ethnicity.
demarcated boundary – Physically marked boundary, like a wall or sign.
crop rotation – Alternating crops in a field to maintain soil fertility.
edge city – Suburban center with businesses, shopping, and entertainment.
Fordism – Mass production system with standardized goods and assembly lines.
equator – Imaginary line around Earth dividing north and south hemispheres.
emigrate – To leave one's country to live in another.
cultural regions – Areas where people share common cultural traits.
demilitarized zone – Area where military forces are not allowed.
dairy farming – Raising cows for milk production.
eminent domain – Government's power to take private land for public use.
formal sector – The legal, tax-paying part of an economy.
false conclusion – A logically incorrect inference from evidence.
epidemiological transition model – Describes changes in disease patterns as a society develops.
cultural relativism – Belief that cultures should be judged by their own standards.
democratization – Transition from authoritarian to democratic political systems.
deforestation – Removal of forests, often for farming or development.
environmental injustice (environmental racism) – Unequal environmental harm to marginalized communities.
free trade – International trade without tariffs or restrictions.
field observations – Notes and data collected directly on-site.
ethnic enclaves – Neighborhoods with high concentrations of a specific ethnicity.
devolution – Transfer of power from central to local governments.
desertification – Fertile land turning into desert due to poor land use.
exurbs – Residential areas beyond the suburbs.
free trade zones (FTZs) – Areas where goods can be traded with relaxed regulations.
fieldwork – Research conducted outside of a lab or office.
family reunification – Immigration policy allowing families to join members abroad.
culture – Shared beliefs, practices, and material traits of a group.
electoral geography – Study of voting patterns and political boundaries.
dispersed settlements – Homes spread far apart in rural areas.
favela (barrio) – Informal housing in Brazilian cities, often lacking services.
front offices – Visible business roles like sales and customer service.
flow – Movement of people, goods, or ideas between places.
forced migration – Involuntary movement due to conflict, disaster, or persecution.
dialect – Regional variation of a language.
electorate – Group of people eligible to vote in an election.
double cropping – Growing two crops in the same field during one year.
filtering – The process of a neighborhood declining as wealthier people move out.
gender gap – Difference in opportunities or status between men and women.
formal region (uniform region; homogenous region) – An area defined by one or more characteristics shared by its population.
gravity model of migration – Predicts the movement of people based on distance and population size.
diaspora – Dispersal of a cultural or ethnic group from their homeland.
ethnic cleansing – Forced removal or extermination of an ethnic group.
economies of scale – Cost advantages gained by increased production.
functional zone – An area designated for a specific activity or function.
Gender Inequality Index (GII) – A measure of gender disparity in a country.
four-level analysis – Analyzing phenomena from local, regional, national, and global levels.
guest worker policies – Policies allowing foreign workers to live and work temporarily.
diffuse – The spread of cultural traits or innovations from one area to another.
ethnic separatism – Desire of an ethnic group to break away from a larger political unit.
Enclosure Acts – Laws in England that privatized common lands.
galactic city model – Urban model showing a decentralized city with a free-flowing layout.
Gini coefficient – A measure of income inequality within a country.
friction of distance – The decreasing interaction between places as distance increases.
guest workers – Immigrants who are temporarily employed in a foreign country.
diffusion – The process by which a characteristic or trend spreads.
ethnographic – The study of human societies and cultures through direct observation.
extensive agriculture (farming) – Farming that requires large amounts of land and labor, often with lower yields.
gated communities – Residential areas with restricted access, typically for security.
gross domestic product (GDP) – The total value of goods and services produced by a country within a year.
functional region – An area defined by a specific function or activity, like a city or transportation network.
immigrant – A person who moves into a country from another.
ethnic enclaves – Neighborhoods where one ethnic group is highly concentrated.
ethnonationalism – A form of nationalism where an ethnic group seeks to form a nation-state.
extensive commercial agriculture – Large-scale farming focused on cash crops for export.
gentrification – The transformation of a neighborhood through the influx of more affluent residents.
gross national income (GNI) – The total value of goods and services produced by a country, including income from abroad.
geographic information system (GIS) – A system designed to capture, store, analyze, and present spatial or geographic data.
infant mortality rate (IMR) – The number of infants who die before reaching one year of age, per 1,000 live births.
ethnic religion – A religion closely associated with a particular ethnic group and region.
exclave – A portion of a country separated from the main part and surrounded by foreign territory.
factory farming – Large-scale industrial farming operations focused on maximizing output.
gravity model – A model predicting the interaction between two places based on their population sizes and distance apart.
growth poles (growth centers) – Areas of concentrated economic development that attract further growth.
geographic scale (relative scale) – The level of analysis used in geographic studies (local, regional, national, global).
infrastructure – The physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of society, like transportation and communications.
geometric distribution – A pattern where objects are spaced evenly, like a grid.
internal migration – The movement of people within a country.
ethnocentrism – Belief that one's own culture is superior to others.
federal state – A political system where power is divided between central and local governments.
feedlots – Confined areas where livestock are raised for slaughter.
Griffin-Ford Model – A model of urban structure in Latin American cities with a central business district and elite residential sectors.
Human Development Index (HDI) – A composite measure of a country's development based on life expectancy, education, and income.
geospatial data – Information that is related to geographic locations and boundaries.
internally displaced persons (IDPs) – People forced to leave their homes but remaining within their country.
expansion diffusion – The spread of an idea or phenomenon through a population from an origin point.
genocide – Deliberate killing of a large group of people, especially those of a particular ethnic group or nation.
Fertile Crescent – A region in the Middle East known for early agricultural development.
hexagonal hinterlands – A model used to represent the surrounding area of a central place with six-sided regions.
imperialism – Policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force.
geovisualization – Use of visual tools and technologies to analyze and present geographic data.
intervening obstacle – A barrier that hinders migration or the movement of goods.
folk culture – Traditional and localized culture, typically practiced by small groups in rural areas.
geometric boundary – A boundary that follows a straight line, often based on geographic coordinates.
First (Neolithic) Agricultural Revolution – The transition from hunting and gathering to settled farming, about 10,000 years ago.
high-density housing – Residential buildings that accommodate a large number of people in a small area.
industrial belt – An area with a high concentration of industries and factories.
global Positioning System (GPS) – A satellite-based navigation system used to determine locations on Earth.
intervening opportunity – A nearby alternative that reduces the likelihood of migration to a distant location.
fundamentalism – Strict adherence to a set of religious beliefs or principles.
geopolitics – The study of the effects of geography on politics and international relations.
food desert – An area where people have limited access to affordable and nutritious food.
higher-order services – Services that are provided in large urban areas, such as specialized medical or financial services.
industrialization – The process of developing industries on a wide scale.
global scale – The perspective or analysis of data on a worldwide level.
life expectancy – The average number of years a person can expect to live.
global culture – The spread of cultural elements across the world, often influenced by globalization.
gerrymandering – The manipulation of electoral district boundaries to favor one political party.
food distribution system – The network through which food is produced, processed, and delivered to consumers.
inclusionary zoning – Policies that require a percentage of new housing to be affordable for low- and moderate-income residents.
industrialization – The development of industries in a country or region on a large scale.
graduated symbol map – A type of thematic map where symbols vary in size to represent data values.
Malthusian Theory – The theory that population grows exponentially while food production increases arithmetically, leading to eventual shortages.
globalization – The process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale.
food insecurity – The state of being without reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food.
incorporation – The process of a city or area becoming officially recognized as a legal entity.
industry – Economic activity related to the production of goods or services.
human geography – The branch of geography that focuses on the relationship between people and their environment.
midlatitudes – The region of Earth between approximately 30° and 60° latitude, often characterized by temperate climates.
gurdwara – A Sikh place of worship.
high seas – Areas of the ocean that are not within any country's jurisdiction.
food processing – The transformation of raw ingredients into food products.
informal economy zone – Economic activities that are not regulated by the government, often involving small-scale trade.
informal sector – Part of the economy that is not taxed or regulated, such as street vending or casual labor.
human-environmental interaction – The study of how humans and the environment influence each other.
migration – The movement of people from one place to another, often for economic or political reasons.
hierarchical diffusion – The spread of an idea or phenomenon from a central point to other locations through authority or influence.
hijacking – The unlawful seizure or control of a vehicle or aircraft, often for ransom or political purposes.
free-market economy – An economic system where prices are determined by unrestricted competition between privately owned businesses.
informal settlement – A residential area where people live without legal rights to the land.
intermodal – Using multiple forms of transportation to move goods or people from one location to another.
International Date Line – An imaginary line located at 180° longitude, where the calendar date changes.
migration transition model – A model describing migration patterns in relation to stages of demographic transition.
Hinduism – A major world religion originating in India, characterized by a belief in reincarnation and karma.
imperialism – A policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force.
French long-lot system – A land division system used in French colonies, where land is divided into narrow strips along a waterway.
informal settlements – Areas where people build homes without legal ownership of the land, often with inadequate infrastructure.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) – An international financial organization that aims to promote global economic stability and growth.
isoline map – A type of map that uses lines to represent areas with equal values, such as elevation or temperature.
neo-Malthusians – A group of thinkers who argue that population growth will outpace resources, leading to disaster.
homogenization – The process of making something uniform or similar, often in the context of culture.
internal boundary – A boundary within a country that divides regions, states, or provinces.
gender inequality – The disparity in rights, opportunities, and resources between men and women.
infrastructure – The basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of society, including roads, bridges, and utilities.
just-in-time delivery – A logistics strategy where goods are produced or delivered just in time for use, reducing inventory costs.
land use – The management and modification of natural environments for human purposes, such as agriculture or urban development.
overpopulation – A situation where the population exceeds the capacity of the environment to support it sustainably.
homogenous – Made up of parts or elements that are all the same or similar.
international waters – The parts of the sea that are not under the jurisdiction of any country.
gender-specific obstacle – Barriers that individuals face based on gender, such as discrimination or limited opportunities.
inner city – The central area of a city, often associated with older housing and economic challenges.
labor-oriented industry (labor-dependent industry) – Industries that require a high level of labor input, such as textiles or assembly.
landscape analysis – The study of physical and cultural landscapes to understand human-environment interactions.
overpopulation – The condition of having a population that exceeds the resources or capacity to sustain it.
imperialism – The practice of extending a nation's power and dominance over other countries through diplomacy or military force.
irredentism – A political movement aimed at reclaiming and reoccupying land considered to be a historic homeland.
genetically modified organism (GMOs) – Organisms whose genetic material has been altered through genetic engineering techniques.
invasion and succession – The process by which new groups of people invade and replace or coexist with the original inhabitants of an area.
least cost theory – A theory in industrial location, suggesting that businesses will choose locations that minimize costs of transportation, labor, and agglomeration.
large-scale map – A map with a smaller area shown in greater detail, with a higher ratio of map units to ground units.
physiological population density – The number of people per unit area of arable land.
indigenous culture – The culture of the native people of a region, often at risk of being displaced by more dominant cultures.
irredentism – The policy of reclaiming or reoccupying territories considered to be historically or ethnically related to one's own state.
grain farming – The practice of cultivating crops like wheat, rice, or corn for food production.
land tenure – The legal right to use and control land, including ownership or lease.
life expectancy – The average number of years a person can expect to live, based on current mortality rates.
latitude – The distance north or south of the equator, measured in degrees.
population density – The number of people living per unit of area, typically per square kilometer or mile.
Indo-European language family – The world's most widely spoken language family, including languages like English, Spanish, Hindi, and Russian.
kidnapping – The unlawful abduction or holding of a person against their will.
Green Revolution – The increase in agricultural production due to modern techniques, such as high-yield crops and chemical fertilizers.
leap-frog development – A pattern of development where growth skips over underdeveloped areas to more advanced regions.
literacy rate – The percentage of people in a population who can read and write at a specified age.
linear distribution – The arrangement of items or people along a line, such as along a transportation route.
population distribution – The pattern of where people live in a given area, which can be clustered or dispersed.
Islam – A major monotheistic religion based on the teachings of the prophet Muhammad and the Quran.
landlocked states – Countries that do not have any coastlines or direct access to the ocean.
horticulture – The cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and flowers.
livability – The quality of life in a location, including factors like safety, housing, and access to services.
locational interdependence – The theory that businesses will locate near competitors or suppliers to reduce costs and maximize efficiency.
local scale – A geographical scale that focuses on smaller, more localized areas, such as a neighborhood or city.
population doubling time – The time it takes for a population to double in size, based on its current growth rate.
isogloss – A boundary line on a map that separates areas where different linguistic features or dialects are spoken.
locational boundary dispute (territorial dispute) – A disagreement over the geographical location of a border or boundary.
hybridization – The blending of two or more cultural traditions or practices to create a new, unique form.
low-density housing – Residential areas where the buildings are spread out, with more space between them.
locational triangle – A concept in location theory where a business or service must consider proximity to raw materials, markets, and labor.
location theory – A theory that explains how and why industries or services are located where they are.
population pyramid – A graphical representation of a population's age and sex distribution, usually in the form of a bar chart.
Judaism – A monotheistic religion that originated with the Hebrew people and is based on the Torah.
militarized boundary – A boundary heavily guarded by military forces to prevent unauthorized movement or invasion.
hydroponics – A method of growing plants without soil, using mineral nutrient solutions in water.
lower-order services – Services that are less specialized and cater to daily needs, such as grocery stores or elementary schools.
maquiladoras – Factories located near the US-Mexico border, where goods are assembled or manufactured for export to the US.
Mercator Projection – A cylindrical map projection where shapes are distorted but directions are accurate, often used for navigation.
pronatalist policies – Policies aimed at encouraging higher birth rates in a population.
language tree – A diagram that shows the relationship between different languages, grouped into families and branches.
multistate nation – A group of people who share a common culture or ethnicity but live in more than one state.
infrastructure – The physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of society, including roads, bridges, and utilities.
market area – The geographic area from which a business or service draws its customers.
Mercosur – A South American trade bloc that promotes free trade and economic cooperation among member states.
model – A simplified representation of a complex phenomenon or system used to explain or predict patterns.
pull factor – A factor that attracts people to a new location, such as job opportunities or better living conditions.
lingua franca – A common language used for communication between speakers of different native languages.
nation – A large group of people who share a common identity, culture, and often a history or language.
intensive agriculture (farming) – A type of farming that involves high levels of labor and capital to produce high yields from small areas of land.
McGee model – A model that explains urban structure in Southeast Asian cities, where a central business district is surrounded by specialized zones.
microlending – A financial service where small loans are given to individuals, often in developing countries, to help them start small businesses.
national scale – A geographical scale that focuses on a large, nation-wide area.
push factor – A factor that drives people to leave a location, such as economic hardship or conflict.
linguist – A person who studies language and its structure, including phonetics, syntax, and semantics.
nation-state – A political entity where the boundaries of the state coincide with the cultural boundaries of a nation.
intensive commercial agriculture – Farming that uses high levels of inputs (like fertilizers and pesticides) and labor to achieve high yields.
medium-density housing – Residential areas with moderate levels of building density, such as townhouses or apartment complexes.
multinational corporations (MNCs) – Large companies that operate in multiple countries, often with subsidiaries or branches around the world.
natural resources – Raw materials from the Earth that are used for economic production, such as minerals, water, and forests.
rate of natural increase (RNI) – The difference between the birth rate and the death rate in a population, indicating growth or decline.
material culture – Physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture, such as buildings, clothing, and tools.
intensive subsistence agriculture – A form of farming where small amounts of land are used intensively to grow food to sustain local populations.
megacities – Very large cities with populations over 10 million people, often facing challenges like overcrowding and pollution.
multiplier effect – The economic impact where an initial change in investment or spending leads to greater changes in the economy.
networks – A system of interconnected people or organizations that share information or resources.
Ravenstein's Laws of Migration – A set of principles that describe the patterns of human migration, including that people move short distances and urban areas attract more migrants.
mentifacts – The intangible elements of culture, such as beliefs, values, and language.
nationalism – A sense of pride, loyalty, and devotion to one's nation, often linked to a desire for self-determination or independence.
intercropping (multicropping) – The practice of growing two or more crops together in the same field to maximize land use and reduce risks.
megalopolis – A vast urban area formed by the merging of several metropolitan areas, typically along major transportation corridors.
multiplier effects – Economic effects where an initial investment leads to increased economic activity, generating more income and jobs.
non-renewable natural resources – Resources that cannot be replenished on a human timescale, such as fossil fuels and minerals.
redistricting – The process of redrawing electoral district boundaries to reflect changes in population or political shifts.
monotheistic – Belief in a single deity or god, as seen in religions like Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.
neocolonialism – The practice of exerting economic, political, or cultural influence over former colonies, often without direct political control.
irrigation – The artificial application of water to land for agricultural purposes, often through canals or systems of pipes.
metacities – Cities with populations over 20 million, often characterized by complex social and economic structures.
neoliberalism – An economic and political ideology advocating for free-market capitalism, minimal government intervention, and privatization of services.
nonspatial models – Theoretical frameworks used to explain phenomena without reference to specific locations.
refugee – A person who has been forced to flee their home country due to fear of persecution based on race, religion, nationality, or political opinion.
multiculturalism – The coexistence of multiple cultural traditions within a society, where diversity is encouraged and celebrated.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) – A military alliance between North American and European countries formed to provide collective defense.
isotropic plain – A theoretical, uniform geographic area where conditions are consistent across the landscape, used in location theory models.
metropolitan area (metro area) – A region that includes a city and its surrounding suburbs, forming an integrated economic and social unit.
new international division of labor – The shifting of production processes to different regions of the world, often to developing countries with lower labor costs.
patterns – Recurrent or predictable trends or arrangements in space, often observed in population distribution or migration.
remittances – Money sent by migrants to their home country, often to support family members or local economies.
nationality – The legal relationship between a person and a state, which can include citizenship and allegiance.
open boundary – A border that is not enforced or is easily crossed, such as between countries with agreements on free movement.
labor intensive – Industries or activities that require a large amount of human labor to produce goods or services.
metropolitan statistical area (MSA) – A geographical region with a large urban population and surrounding communities that are socially and economically integrated.
non-basic economic activity – Economic activities that do not bring income into the area, such as services and industries that support the local economy.
perceptual region (vernacular region) – A region defined by people's perceptions or beliefs about an area, often based on cultural or historical associations.
return migration – The movement of people back to their place of origin, often after a period of migration to a different area.
native speaker – A person who speaks a language as their first or primary language, typically learned from birth.
operational boundary dispute (functional dispute) – A disagreement over how a border is used or administered, rather than its exact location.
land coverage change – Changes in the way land is used, such as deforestation, urbanization, or agricultural expansion.
micropolitan statistical area (MSA) – A region centered around a smaller urban area with a population between 10,000 and 50,000 people.
non-governmental organization (NGO) – An organization that operates independently from government influence, often focused on humanitarian or social causes.
Peters Projection – A map projection that attempts to represent areas accurately, though it distorts shape and size, especially near the poles.
rural-to-urban migration – The movement of people from rural areas to urban centers in search of better opportunities, often associated with urbanization.
nativism – The belief that native-born citizens of a country should be prioritized over immigrants or outsiders.
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) – An international organization that coordinates the petroleum policies of its member countries to regulate oil production and prices.
linear settlement – A type of settlement that develops along a linear feature such as a river, road, or coastline.
mixed-use neighborhoods (mixed land use) – Areas where residential, commercial, and sometimes industrial activities coexist, often to promote walkability and reduce sprawl.
offshoring – The practice of relocating business operations, such as manufacturing or services, to other countries to reduce costs.
physical geography – The branch of geography that focuses on the physical features of the Earth, including landforms, climate, and ecosystems.
slavery – The system in which people are owned by others and forced to work without pay or rights.
neolocalism – The trend of people embracing or reviving local traditions, often in response to globalization or cultural homogenization.
packing – A gerrymandering technique in which political opponents are concentrated in a few districts to reduce their influence in others.
livestock ranching – The practice of raising animals, such as cattle or sheep, for meat, milk, or wool.
mosque – A place of worship for followers of Islam.
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) – An intergovernmental organization made up of 13 oil-producing countries that coordinate and unify petroleum production and pricing policies.
physical map – A map that shows the natural features of the landscape, such as mountains, rivers, and forests.
social stratification – The hierarchical arrangement of individuals in society based on factors like wealth, race, and power.
nonmaterial culture – The intangible aspects of culture, such as beliefs, values, and customs.
physical consequent boundary – A boundary defined by natural features like rivers, mountains, or coastlines.
local-food movement – A movement promoting the consumption of locally produced food to support local economies and reduce environmental impact.
multi-nuclei model (Harris and Ullman) – A model of urban structure where a city has multiple centers of activity, not just one central business district.
outsourcing – The practice of obtaining goods or services from an external supplier, often from a foreign country.
place – A specific location with unique physical and human characteristics.
step migration – A migration pattern where people move in stages, often from rural areas to small towns and then to cities.
official language – A language that is given legal status by a government and used for official purposes.
physical geographic boundary – A boundary defined by physical features, like rivers, mountains, or deserts.
location theory – A theory that explains the spatial arrangement of economic activities and their geographic distribution.
municipal – Relating to a city or town, especially its government or administration.
per capita – A measure of an average per person, often used in economic or demographic data.
plat map – A map that shows the subdivisions and layout of land parcels.
total fertility rate (TFR) – The average number of children a woman is expected to have in her lifetime.
pidgin language – A simplified language that develops when speakers of different languages need to communicate.
political enclave – A small region that is politically or culturally distinct from the larger area around it.
luxury crops – High-value crops grown for export, such as coffee, tea, and cacao.
municipality – A local government authority responsible for managing a town, city, or district.
periphery – The outermost areas of a region or country, often with less economic development.
political map – A map that shows boundaries of countries, states, cities, and other political divisions.
transhumance – The seasonal movement of livestock between different grazing areas.
pilgrimage – A journey to a sacred place for religious reasons.
reapportionment – The process of redistributing political representation based on population changes.
market gardening – The small-scale production of fruits, vegetables, and flowers for local markets.
New Urbanism (new urban design) – An urban planning movement that promotes walkable, sustainable communities.
post-Fordist – An economic system characterized by flexible production and globalized markets.
possibilism – The theory that the environment sets constraints but people have the ability to adjust and make choices.
transnational migration – Migration that occurs across national boundaries and may involve multiple countries.
placelessness – The loss of uniqueness of a place, leading to indistinguishable spaces.
redistricting – The redrawing of electoral boundaries to reflect changes in population.
Mediterranean agriculture – Farming system in regions with a Mediterranean climate, focusing on crops like olives and grapes.
nodal city – A city that serves as a central hub for transportation, trade, or services in a region.
postindustrial economy – An economy that has shifted away from manufacturing to services, technology, and information industries.
prime meridian – The line of longitude designated as 0°, running through Greenwich, England.
voluntary migration – The movement of people based on personal choice or the pursuit of better opportunities.
polytheistic – The belief in multiple gods or deities.
regionalism – The promotion of local or regional interests within a larger political or economic system.
Mediterranean climate – A climate characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, typically found in coastal regions.
nodal region – A region defined by a central node or focus of activity, such as a city or transportation hub.
primary sector – The part of the economy that extracts raw materials from the Earth, like agriculture, mining, and fishing.
process(es) – Actions or operations that contribute to changes or development in a system or environment.
xenophobia – Fear or dislike of people from other countries or cultures.
popular culture – Cultural elements that are widely accepted and practiced by the majority of a population.
relic boundary – A former boundary that no longer functions but is still recognized for historical or cultural reasons.
metes and bounds – A system of land description using physical features like rivers or trees to define boundaries.
pedestrian cities – Cities designed primarily for walking, with minimal reliance on cars or other vehicles.
purchasing power parity (PPP) – A theory that compares the relative value of currencies based on the cost of goods and services.
projection – A method of representing the Earth's curved surface on a flat map.
postmodern architecture – A style of architecture that emerged as a reaction to modernism, emphasizing diversity and complexity.
self-determination – The right of a people or group to control their own political and economic affairs.
milk shed – The area around a city from which milk is supplied, typically a short distance due to the perishable nature of milk.
percent urban – The proportion of a population living in urban areas.
quaternary sector – The economic sector involving knowledge-based activities like research, technology, and information.
qualitative resources – Non-numerical data, such as descriptions or observations, used in research.
relocation diffusion – The spread of an idea or innovation through the physical movement of people.
semiautonomous region – A region with a degree of independence but still under the authority of a central government.
mixed crop and livestock farming – A farming system where both crops and livestock are raised, often for mutual benefit.
periferico – The ring or outer area of a city, often characterized by lower-income housing and informal settlements.
quinary sector – The economic sector involving high-level decision-making, management, and scientific research.
quantitative data – Data expressed in numbers, such as population statistics or economic figures.
reverse hierarchical diffusion – The spread of an idea from a small, local scale to larger areas, often seen in cultural or social movements.
shatterbelt – A region caught between stronger colliding external cultural or political forces, often resulting in instability.
monocropping – The agricultural practice of growing a single crop over a large area.
periodic markets – Markets that operate at scheduled times, often in rural areas, offering goods to local communities.
raw materials (natural resources) – Unprocessed materials that are used in manufacturing or production, like timber, minerals, or oil.
random distribution – A distribution pattern where there is no specific order or structure, often seen in plants or animals.
Romance languages – A group of languages derived from Latin, such as Spanish, French, and Italian.
small island developing state (SIDS) – A group of low-lying, small islands facing challenges like limited resources and climate change.
monoculture – The agricultural practice of growing a single crop in large quantities over an extensive area.
peripheral model – A model of urban structure that emphasizes suburbanization and the development of nodes outside the city center.
remittances – Money sent by migrants back to their home country, typically to support family members.
reference map – A map that shows locations of geographic features for general reference, not for specific analysis.
sacred place – A location that holds religious significance for a particular group of people.
sovereignty – The authority of a state to govern itself and make decisions without external interference.
neocolonialism – The practice of using economic, political, or other pressures to control or influence a country, typically a former colony.
population composition – The demographic makeup of a population, including factors like age, sex, and ethnicity.
reshoring – The practice of bringing jobs back to the home country after they have been outsourced.
region – An area defined by certain unifying characteristics, such as physical, cultural, or economic traits.
sequent occupancy – The process by which successive societies leave their imprint on a place, resulting in layers of cultural influence.
stacking – The layering of different social, economic, or racial groups in urban areas, often leading to stratification.
organic foods (farming) – Farming that uses natural processes and avoids synthetic chemicals and fertilizers.
primate city – A city that is the largest and most influential in its country or region.
rust belt – A region in the northeastern and midwestern U.S. characterized by the decline of manufacturing industries.
regional scale – The scale at which geographic phenomena are studied or analyzed, focusing on a specific region.
Sharia – Islamic law derived from the teachings of the Quran and Hadith, governing aspects of daily life.
state – A political entity with a defined territory, government, and sovereignty.
overgraze – The excessive grazing of livestock, which can lead to land degradation.
public transportation – Systems of transportation that are available to the general public, such as buses, trains, or subways.
Rust Belt – The region in the U.S. that has experienced deindustrialization, characterized by abandoned factories and economic decline.
Pampas – Fertile South American lowlands, especially in Argentina, used for agriculture and livestock grazing.
relative distance – The measure of distance that considers the cost or time of travel between two places.
Sikhism – A monotheistic religion founded in the Punjab region of India, focusing on equality, service, and devotion to God.
stateless nation – A group of people without a recognized state or territory, such as the Kurds.
pastoral nomadism (nomadic herding) – A subsistence farming practice where people move with their herds to find pasture.
qualitative data – Non-numeric data that describes characteristics or qualities, like interviews or surveys.
secondary sector – The part of the economy that processes raw materials into finished goods, such as manufacturing.