exam for group behaviour
Leadership
Leadership is dynamic - it involves the leader, followers and the situation
Interpersonal, transactional, reciprocal/cooperatives process between one person and a group
No leadership without followership
Criterion for an effective leader = goal achievement
Leadership is long term
Leadership vs Management
The Concept of Leadership
Leadership Emergence
From within the group, gradually achieves leadership position - extraverted, assertive
Leadership effectiveness
Which traits and behaviours of the leader led to the outcome (Task), affective/relational (social) valued by the work group or organisation (both task and social)
Theories of Leadership
The DNA of leadership: high energy, aggressiveness, dominance, self reliance
Personality Qualities of Leaders
Extraversion, conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness
General intelligence, practical intelligence and emotional intelligence
Expreitise
What does a Leader Do?
Leader Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)
Looks at tasks and relationships
A leader analyzes, coordinates, decides, monitors, negotiates, plans, presents, innovates, coaches,, cheerleader, etc..
Task Leadership
Promotes task completion, regulating behaviour, monitoring communication and reducing goal ambiguity
Relationship Leadership
Maintiing and enhancing positive interpersonal relations in the group. Friendliness, mutual trust, openness, recognizing performance
WHo Will Lead?
Bias against women and minorities
Implicit leadership theories
Eaglys social role theory: ILTs are not consistent with intuitive expectations about men and women “think leader, think male”
Hogg - SOcial Identity Theory: protoype/sterotpes. What is needed for the group, who are we as a group
Leadership Effectiveness
Contingency Approaches (Fiedler's Contingency Model)
Determined by interaction between leadership style and characteristics of the situation
Either classified as person or task oriented
Situation can be favourable, unfavourable or moderate
Strengths
Looks at situations not just traits and behaviours
Research support
Don't have to be effective in all situations
Limitations
Does not fully explain why some styles are more effective
LPC scale - doesnt examine direct leadership style
Too many situational variables
Leadership Grid - Blake and Mouton
X and Y axis from 1 (low) to 9 (high)
Situational Theory - Hersey & Blanchard / Blake & Mouton
Extension of leadership grid
Telling/Directing, Selling/coaching, participating/supporting and delegating
Situational Leadership
Effective leadership requires selecting a style that reflect the groups maturity
M1/S1: unwilling/neither confident or competent. → telling/directing
M2/S2: unable but willing/motivated but lack skills → selling/coaching
M3/S3: able but willing → participating/supporting
M4/S4: able and willing intrinsically motivated → delegating
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
Based on exchanges between the leader and follower
Two groups
In-group
Viewed by the leader as competent, trustworthy and highly motivated
Leadership used
Out-group
Viewed as incompetent, untrustworthy and poorly motivated
Supervision used
Series of exchanges/interactions
Phase 1: Role-taking
Phase 2: Role Making
Phase 3: Role routinization
Transformational Leadership
Elements of transformational leadership
Creating a strategic vision
Communicating the vision
Building commitment
Modeling the vision
4 general strategies
Inspirational motivation: ability to motivate others through emotions - vision for the future, optimism and hope
Idealised influence: eliciting respect from others, conviction, commitment, purpose
Intellectual stimulation: new ways of thinking and doing things - developing intellectual needs
Individualized consideration: consider followers needs, abilities and aspirations
Power
Social power: the capacity/ability to influence others
Direct or indirect power tactics
Extreme authority ca lead to disastrous outcomes (e.g cults)
Constructive vs Destructive Power
Power is the ability or authority to influence and motivate others - leaders may ot be able to lead w/o it .
Power is used to enhance group effectiveness than to reduce it
Power is used to benefit the followers and the group
The use of power is agreed to by others rather than occurring without their agreement
Positive Effects of power
proactive , engaged
Positive, strong motions
Goal focused
Positive emotions
Enhances cognitive functioning
Insulates from influence
Milgram's “Obedience to Authority” Study
Milgram wanted to see if there was a certain personality than would be more willing to comply with orders from an authority
Confederates and Participants
RESULTS:
No one withdrew before 300 volts (at this point the first five refused)
26/40 went all the way (65% obeys all the way until the end)
Milgram altered the study adding 2 confederates as “participants”
If 2 others gave shocks, 92% obedience
If 2 others reduces, 90% disobedience
Replication Studies (Jerry M. Burger)
Noticed that if you went up to 150v, you would go the entire rest of the way
Focused on the power of the situation
Personality Implications
People differed in age personality and life experiences
Milgram study - people who adhered to conventional values, paired with an uncritical acceptance of authority were mre likely to give more intense shocks
Burger Study - people who disobey had higher levels of empathy and moral maturity
Stanford Prison Experiment
Focused more on the situation rather than the individual
Participants randomly assigned to prisoner or inmate
Power Processes in Groups
Superior-subordinate relations - acknowledgement of hierarchical positioning
Interpersonal complementarity hypothesis: individuals behave in ways that evoke complimentary behaviour in others
Agentic State: higher responsibility to the authority and lowered responsibility to the actions
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE): tendency to overestimate the causal influence of dispositional factors that underemphasize the causal influence of situational factors
Dispositional: Inside the individual (The Bad Apple)
Situational External (The Bad Barrel)
Systemic: Broad influences (e.g Political, economical, legal power [The Bad Barrel Makers])
Sources of Powers in Groups
French and Ravens Power Bases Theory
Reward: rewards given
Coercive: punishment for non-compliance
Legitimate: sanctioned right to power
Referent: Charismatic, attraction for power holder, respect given
Expert: follower believes they have special qualities
Informational: access or control to information or withholding of information
Personal Power
Referent, Expert
Positional Power
Informational, Legitimate, Coercive, Reward
Power Techniques
Direct v Indirect tactics
Rational (logic) vs Non Rational (emotional)
Unilateral (enacted without cooperation) vs Bilateral (more interactive)
Behavioural Commitment
Foot in the Door Technique
Small request then bigger request
Foot in the Face Technique
Big request followed by small ones
Using Power to Influence Others
Kelman's Three Stage Model of Conversion
Compliance
Comply w demands but they do not agree
Identification
Group members are motivated to please authority
Internalization
Group members follow because orders are congruent with personal beliefs
Effects of Power
Approach Inhibition model of power
Power leads to approach behaviour
Powerlessness leads to inhibition
Corrupting effects of power
Power motivation: the need for power - more vigorously than others
Social dominance orientation - a dispositional tendency to accept and even prefer circumstances that sustain social inequalities - greater male preference
Corrupting Influence of Power
Mandate Phenomenon: a tendency for leaders to overstep the bounds of their authority when they feel they have support from the group
Michels iron law of oligarchy; any group where power is concentrated with few power holders doing whatever possible to protect and enhance their power.
Resistance to Influence
Revolutionary coalitations: a subgroup formed within larger groups that seeks to disrupt the groups authority structure
Reactance: a reaction that occurs when individuals feel their freedom to make choices has been threatened
Conflict and Rebellion: against authority (the ripple effect)
The Dark Side of Personality
Machiavellianism
Narcissism
Psychopathy
NOT a disorder but a subcategory of Antisocial Personality Disorder
PCLR
20 items, form two broad scales = affective/interpersonal features and antisocial/social deviance features
Destructive Leadership
Group Cohesion and Development
Concept of equifinality = final state can be reached from different paths
Two primary forms of cohesion: task and social
Social cohesion: attraction of members to one another and the group as a whole
Task Cohesion: commitment among its members to achieve a goal and the capacity to perform successfully as a unit
Definitions of Group COhesion
Individuals attraction to the group or team morale
This is not strong enough – too one dimensional
“A dynamic process that is reflected in the tendency of a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member needs.” (Carron, Brawley and Widmeyer)
Cohesion = Unity (Group Unity and Sense of Belonging)
Cohesion = Teamwork (Collective Efficacy and Group Morale, Esprit de Corps)
Studying Group Cohesion
Carrons general antecedents of cohesion
Environment
Personal
Leadership
Team factors (structural cohesion)
Group Environment Questionnaire
Dimensions of perceived team cohesion
Individual Attraction to Group Task
Feelings about involvement with group task
Individual Attraction to Group Social
Regard for acceptance and interaction in group
Group Integration Task
Feelings about achieving group task
Group Integration Social
Feelings about group as social unit
Cohesion and Performance
Attraction, Unity and Team Focus/Teamwork impact cohesion which impacts performance
Cohesion-performance relationship is strongest when members are committed to group tasks.
Group Cohesion Overtime
Group development is a dynamic process, develops overtime
Tuckman's five-stage model of group development
Forming
Orientation stage, people monitor their behaviour
Storming
Tension over goals, procedures, personality differences, authority
Norming
Group becomes more unified, mutual trust and support, increase in communication
Performing
Difficult to get to this stage, many groups get side tracked in previous stages
Adjourning
Either planned or spontaneous
Hazing
Group Decision Making
Groups make better decisions together
More information
More work being done
Discussions, processing of information
Groups have standards for decision making
More people more support
Types of Decisions
Intellective tasks (right or wrong)
Judgemental Tasks (no correct answer - jury's verdict)
Anatomy of Group Decision
Functional Theory of Group Decision making
Phases of decision making
Orientation
Defining the problem
Planning the process
Discussion
Collective information processing model
Gathering and Remembering information
Exchanging Information
Dialogue and Debate (processinging information)
Collective Memory: groups combined memory
Cross-Cueing: recall of memories improved through groups statements
Transactive Memory: information is distributed to various members of the group
Decision
Social Decision Schemes
Delegation: individual or subgroup makes decision
Statistical Aggregation/Averaging: individual decisions are averaged
Voting/Plurality Decisions: publicly or secret ballot - 50% rule primarily used
Consensus/Unanimous Decision: discussion to unanimity
Random Choice/Decisions: left to chance
Individual vs Group Decision Making
Vroom's Normative Model of Decision Making
Autocratic I & II (Decide)
Leader solves the problem on his/her own with information available at the time or obtains information from the group then decides
Consultative I & II (Consult)
Leader either shares problem with selected group members or the entire group
Implementation
Post-Mortem Discussion