AP GOPO Midterm Study Guide

Governing is achieved directly through citizen participation and indirectly through institutions such as political parties, interest groups, and mass media. These entities inform, organize, and mobilize support to influence policy making.

5.1 Voting Rights and Models of Behavior

  1. Suffrage: The legal right to vote.

  2. Constitutional Amendments and Participation:

    Amendment

    Definition

    Expanded opportunity for political participation by…

    15th Amendment

    Prohibited voting restrictions based on race.

    Granting African American men the right to vote.

    17th Amendment

    Direct election of Senators by the people.

    Allowing voters to choose Senators directly rather than state legislatures.

    19th Amendment

    Guaranteed women the right to vote.

    Extending suffrage to all female citizens.

    24th Amendment

    Abolished the poll tax.

    Removing economic barriers that prevented poor (mostly minority) voters from casting ballots.

    26th Amendment

    Lowered voting age to 18.

    Permitting younger citizens to participate in the democratic process.

  3. Voting Behaviors:

    • Rational Choice Voting: Voting based on what is perceived to be in the citizen’s individual interest.

    • Retrospective Voting: Voting to decide whether the party or candidate in power should be re-elected based on the recent past.

    • Prospective Voting: Voting based on predictions of how a party or candidate will perform in the future.

    • Party-line Voting: Supporting a party by voting for candidates from one political party for all public offices at the same level of government.

5.2 Voter Turnout

  1. Structural Barriers: These include voter ID laws, registration requirements, the timing of elections (weekdays), and the location of polling places.

  2. Federalism and Registration: Voter registration is managed by states, demonstrating federalism. Laws like the National Voter Registration Act (Motor Voter) attempted to reduce barriers, but varying state requirements (e.g., closing dates) can still hinder turnout.

  3. Incentives and Penalties: While the U.S. does not generally use fines (compulsory voting), incentives like "I Voted" stickers promote social norms, whereas the threat of long lines or lost wages acts as a penalty.

  4. Election Type: Presidential elections have significantly higher turnout (roughly 50-60\%) compared to mid-term elections (roughly 35-45\%).

  5. Demographics and Efficacy:

    • Predictors: High income, higher education, and older age are positively correlated with voting likelihood.

    • Political Efficacy: A citizen’s belief that their vote matters and can influence the government. High efficacy leads to higher turnout.

    • Determinants of Vote Choice: Party ID is the strongest predictor. Candidate characteristics (charisma, experience), religious affiliation (e.g., Evangelicals favoring Republicans), gender (gender gap), and race/ethnicity also heavily influence choice.

5.3 Political Parties

  1. Linkage Institution: A structure within society that connects the people to the government. Examples include political parties, interest groups, elections, and the media.

  2. Political Party: An organized group of people with at least roughly similar political aims and opinions, that seeks to influence public policy by getting its candidates elected to public office.

  3. Functions:

    • For Electorate: Educating voters, mobilizing turnout, and providing a "label" that simplifies candidate choice.

    • In Government: Coordinating policy-making, organizing the leadership of Congress, and acting as a watchdog for the opposition.

5.4 How and Why Political Parties Change and Adapt

  1. Candidate-Centered Campaigns: Parties have adapted as candidates now build their own personal followings, often relying less on party hierarchy for funding and outreach (direct primary influence).

  2. Coalitions: Parties modify messaging (e.g., "big tent" strategies) to attract specific demographics, such as suburban voters or minority groups.

  3. Critical Election and Realignment: A critical election is an "electoral earthquake" where new issues emerge and new coalitions replace old ones. Realignment is the actual displacement of the majority party by the minority party.

5.5 Third-Party Politics

  1. Winner-Take-All System: An electoral system in which the candidate who receives the most votes wins the seat. This creates a barrier because third parties often get votes but no representation.

  2. Proportional System: Legislative seats are awarded to a party in proportion to the number of votes won in an election.

  3. Purpose of Third Parties: They bring new issues to the table (e.g., environmentalism), provide a voice for the fringe, and can act as ‘spoilers’ in close elections.

5.6 Interest Groups Influencing Policy Making

  1. Interest Group: An organization of people with shared policy goals entering the policy process at several points (e.g., Sierra Club).

  2. Methods of Influence:

    • Lobbying: Persuading public officials to support a specific policy.

    • Electioneering: Aiding candidates financially (PACs) and getting group members out to vote.

    • Litigation: Using the courts (e.g., amicus curiae briefs) to achieve goals.

  3. Institutional Structures:

    • Iron Triangle: The relationship between an Interest Group, a Congressional Committee, and a Bureaucratic Agency.

    • Issue Network: A looser, more informal alliance of various interest groups and individuals who unite in order to promote a common cause.

5.8 Electing a President

  1. Incumbency Advantage: The tendency of those already in office to win re-election due to name recognition, fundraising, and a track record.

  2. Primaries and Caucuses: Open primaries allow any voter to participate; closed primaries require party registration. A caucus is a meeting of local party members to choose candidates. Their purpose is to win delegates for the national convention.

  3. National Convention: Formally nominates the President and VP and establishes the party platform.

  4. Electoral College: A compromise between the election of the President by a vote in Congress and election by a popular vote of qualified citizens.

    • Calculation: Total electors (538) = House (435) + Senate (100) + D.C. (3).

    • Winning: Requires a majority of electoral votes (270).

    • Federalism: States decide how to award electors; most use a winner-take-all system.

5.11 Campaign Finance

  1. BCRA (2002): Aimed to ban "soft money" (unregulated donations to parties) and restricted political ads close to elections.

  2. Citizens United v. FEC (2010): The SCOTUS held that corporate and union funding of independent political broadcasts is protected by the 1st Amendment. This led to the rise of Super PACs, which can spend unlimited sums independently of the candidate.

5.12-5.13 The Media

  1. Media as Linkage Institution: It sets the political agenda and informs the public.

  2. Horse Race Journalism: Media coverage that focuses on polling data and public perception rather than candidate policy and issues.

  3. Modern Challenges: Increased media choices and