War and Ultranationalism Review: Can you discuss?

• Kaiser Wilhelm II - policies “Weltpolitik” - aim was to transform Germany into a global power

Weltpolitik, Germany's foreign policy strategy under Kaiser Wilhelm II, aimed to establish the nation as a global power through naval expansion, colonialism, and a strong international presence. This policy contributed to the tensions leading to World War I and influenced the creation of international institutions post-war.

• Pre-1914 Alliance Systems

The alliance systems before World War I refers to the two main alliance systems that divided the main powers of Europe and set the stage for the First World War. In short, this includes the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. These alliance systems were significant because they led to the eventual 1914 outbreak of World War I. As such, historians consider both the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente to be significant causes of World War I. They helped divide Europe in the early 20th century and created a tense situation that caused war to erupt following the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28th, 1914.​

Triple Alliance (Central Powers)

• Germany • Austria-Hungary • Italy • (later) Turkey

• Brought together by the “Dual Alliance”

Triple Entente (Allied Powers)

• Britain • Russia • France • (later) Italy and US

• Brought together by the “Entente Cordial” (friendly relations” agreement between Britain and France

• Britain and Russia have their own agreement

• Cause of WW1 - Imperialism, Nationalism, Alliances, Increased Militarism, plus Assassination (why were the Balkans referred to as the powder keg on Europe)

World War 1 - Causes – M.A.N.I.A (Militarization, Alliances, Nationalism, Imperialism, Assassination)

Militarization

• Arms Race: building up armaments “What if we are attacked by others? We must keep up, if not surpass and be stronger. We must continue to develop our technology.”

• Symbols of Prestige and Status: this became of increased importance for governments; therefore they increased their spending on it. “How can we allow [nation-state] to be stronger than us? We must show them that we no less.”

• Balance of Power: if one country increased military strength, so would the others. “In order to make sure [nation-state] does not feel that they are the strongest, we must balance out the power and be on par with their military strength.”

Alliances

• Security Measure: taken as a precaution ”If [nation-state] attacks us tomorrow, we have other nation-states that will have our back. They have arms they will help us.”

• Deterrent: a thing that discourages or is intended to discourage someone from doing something. “If we band together, [nation-state] will not risk taking us all on as it would harm them in more than one way. Going to war with us, would mean going to war with the others as well.”

• Agreements: many allies were tied together through agreements or obligations, meaning they would have to enter a war. “[Nation-state A] is going to war with [nation-state B]. I must also go to war with [nation- state A] because we signed the [agreement].”

Nationalism

Pride in one’s country is very strong at this time in Europe. This is reflected in several things: anthems, politics, ethnocentrism, etc.

• War is seen as a source of pride for nations. “Look what I can take on.”

• Germany: wanted to become a superpower, and in order to do this, they needed: more colonies, a large army, and a navy comparable to Britain’s. Germany wanted to pursue it’s “place in the sun.”

• France: lost territory during the Franco-Prussian war to Germany and wanted it back. Morocco also wanted freedom from France and Germany supported this sentiment.

• Britain: believed in their identity as the” Great British Empire” and disliked the tension between the countries who wanted to rival their power “The sun never sets on the British Empire.

• Serbia: becomes an independent country in 1878. Many Serbians and people of Slavic background are spread out in other countries under Turkish and Austrian rule.

• Serbia desires all Serbs to be under it’s control and has Russia’s backing of this policy of Pan Slavism

• This nationalism movement leads to the creation of terrorists’ groups and rebellions against Austrian-Hungarians in the Balkans

Imperialism

• Imperialism: a policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force.

• European powers competed for control of colonies that possessed raw materials and strategic importance

• Recall the “Scramble for Africa”

Assassination

• June 28, 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary is assassinated by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip. Princip belong to a “terrorist” group fighting for independence from Austria-Hungary.

The Balkans were called the “powder keg of Europe” because the term is a metaphor that compares the nationalistic tensions present in the Balkans before World War I to that of a keg (or barrel) of gunpowder, which is essentially a bomb. The region was the battlefield for much of the war as well as its own ethnic conflicts and clashes before the war. The only thing the powder keg needed to explode was a spark, which was the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

• Reasons why Germans accepted Nazism in the period after WWI

One of the most extreme forms of nationalism arose in Germany under the Nazi party, led by Adolf Hitler in the 1930s. In the early 1930s, the Nazi party gained popularity with German voters because of a nationalistic program attacking the Treaty of Versailles, the Weimar Republic, the Communists, and the Jewish population. In 1933, after gaining parliamentary support, Hitler was appointed chancellor and Germany was transformed into an ultra nationalistic state. In the years that followed, extensive use of propaganda, military strength, aggressive expansionism, and terror resulted in prolonged war that was directed to fulfill German ambitions.

• Members of the Triple Entente

Great Britain, France, and Russia.

• Members of the Triple Alliance

Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy

• Understand the reasons for a prolonged war (WW1)

As each country tried to prove their dominance and power, the war became more complicated and prolonged.

The Immediate Causes of World War I included:

• Crises in the Balkans

  • The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

  • Foreign Policy Decisions

• Characteristics of the Western Front

The Western Front during World War I was characterized by¹²:

• Difficult and dangerous battles along the western border of Germany.

• A stretch of 475 miles between Germany, Belgium, and Luxembourg to the east, and most of France to the west.

• Trenches on both sides and barbed wire.

• A solid front from the sea to the Alps, with no flanks left to turn.

• Attempts to break through the line were made before winter weather set in and exhausted units became incapable of action.

• Understand the impact of nationalist wartime propaganda

Nationalist wartime propaganda had a significant impact during World War I. Here are some key points:

Mobilizing Support: Propaganda aimed to create a sense of national unity and encourage citizens to support the war effort. It portrayed the enemy as evil and emphasized the importance of sacrifice for the nation1.

Exaggeration and Persuasion: While some truth was depicted in posters, many were exaggerated to persuade citizens to comply with government goals. These images urged people to join the army, buy war bonds, or contribute in other ways1.

Culture of Sacrifice: Propaganda fostered a culture where everyone was expected to do their part for the war. It influenced how the war was understood and remembered.

There is also the Nazi propaganda during World War II, which played a crucial role in shaping beliefs and attitudes in Germany

Propaganda was one of the most important tools the Nazis used to shape the beliefs and attitudes of the German public. Through posters, film, radio, museum exhibits, and other media, they bombarded the German public with messages designed to build support for and gain acceptance of their vision for the future of Germany. The gallery of images below exhibits several examples of Nazi propaganda, and the introduction that follows explores the history of propaganda and how the Nazis sought to use it to further their goals.

Propaganda has played a significant role in shaping public opinion during wars. Let’s explore some of the commonly used techniques:

Name-calling: This involves using derogatory terms to describe an opponent or enemy. By labeling them negatively, propaganda aims to create a strong emotional response and demonize the other side1.

Appealing to emotions: Propaganda often relies on emotional appeals to influence people’s opinions. Whether evoking fear, anger, or patriotism, emotional manipulation is a powerful tool in shaping public perception2.

Bandwagoning: This technique uses peer pressure to convince people to support a cause. By suggesting that “everyone else is doing it,” propaganda encourages individuals to join the majority3.

Scare tactics: Propaganda aims to frighten people into supporting a particular cause. It exaggerates threats posed by the enemy, emphasizing the urgency of the war effort2.

War bond propaganda: Governments encourage civilians to buy war bonds to fund the war. These campaigns emphasize patriotism and financial support for the troops1.

Enemy demonization: Propaganda paints the enemy as not only a threat to the nation but also to civilization itself. This dehumanization justifies the conflict and rallies support for the war1.

Remember that propaganda techniques can vary across different wars and nations, but these common themes persist.

• Glorification of heroism, dehumanization of the enemy, underestimation of the dangers of war, condemnation of those who do not support the war

Glorification of Heroism:

Wilfred Owen’s powerful poem, “Dulce et Decorum Est,” vividly portrays the horrors of war. It specifically focuses on the physical and emotional toll it takes on soldiers. Rather than glorifying war, Owen exposes its brutal reality.

The false notion that it is noble to die for one’s country is challenged in this poem. Owen’s use of descriptive language and powerful imagery leaves a lasting impact on readers.

Dehumanization of the Enemy:

During wars, dehumanizing language is often used to distance soldiers from their adversaries. This can lead to atrocities and make it easier to kill.

In the context of the Vietnam War and the Global War on Terror, American military terms for the enemy have been analyzed. Such language contributes to the dehumanization of both the enemy and American service members themselves.

Underestimation of Dangers:

War narratives sometimes downplay the true dangers faced by soldiers. Owen’s work, however, emphasizes the physical and emotional harm war inflicts on soldiers. It dispels any romanticized notions of war’s nobility.

Mustard gas, as described in “Dulce et Decorum Est,” causes slow and agonizing death, challenging the idea that war is honorable.

Condemnation of Non-Supporters:

War can polarize societies, leading to condemnation of those who oppose it. However, critical voices are essential for a balanced perspective.

Owen’s poems aim to make people question the belief that dying for one’s country is honorable. He portrays suffering truthfully, rather than glorifying war.

In summary, Owen’s work serves as a powerful reminder of war’s devastating reality, urging us to question prevailing narratives and consider the true cost of conflict

• Canada’s response to the war (why there was opposition from some French Canadians)

During World War I, French Canadians had complex reactions to the conflict. Initially, their response mirrored that of the rest of Canada. However, as the war dragged on and casualties mounted, tensions arose. Here’s a breakdown of their response:

Initial Support: At the outbreak of the war in 1914, Canada was part of the British Empire, so when Britain went to war, Canada followed suit. French Canadians initially supported the war effort, with leaders like Sir Wilfrid Laurier urging unity and backing for the war.

Conscription Controversy: By 1917, with thousands of Canadian soldiers killed and wounded, conscription became a divisive issue. French Canadians were accused of not contributing enough soldiers. Many felt it was a distant imperial conflict, not their war. The debate intensified, leading to bitter divisions.

Conscription Riots: French-Canadians vehemently opposed conscription. They held street demonstrations, riots, and barricade fighting. Eventually, the Canadian Government suspended the application of the National Service Act in Quebec12.

In summary, French Canadians’ opposition to conscription during World War I reflected their unique perspective and contributed to the war’s divisive impact on Canada’s national unity.

• Understand extent of propaganda: education

Understanding, analyzing, and critiquing propaganda can strengthen democracy by promoting Multi perspectival thinking.

• How did nationalism increase tensions in Europe prior to the outbreak of World War I?

The pursuit of national interests reached new heights as the nations of Europe engaged in deep rivalries that ultimately resulted in a long and destructive war. World War I began in 1914; however there were many fundamental as well as immediate causes that led to the outbreak of war. Fundamental causes create underlying tension between nations many years prior to the outbreak of war. Immediate causes act as a trigger or a catalyst in an already dangerous situation.

• How did “Italia Irredenta” impact Italy’s decision to enter World War One?

Italia Irredenta in the Italian language means "unredeemed Italy." It refers to territory adjoining Italy on the north and northeast, occupied by Italians at some time or another. When in 1871 the kingdom of Italy took its present form through the union of former Italian states, Italia Irredenta remained under the rule of Austria. So-called Irredentist Italians felt that Italian unity was not complete so long as adjoining lands inhabited by Italian speaking people were ruled by foreign governments. So they regarded these lands as "unredeemed." Italia Irredenta in 1914 consisted chiefly of the Trentino, a triangle of territory dipping down into the north of Italy, and some land around the northern end of the Adriatic including the important city of Trieste. Both of these regions were ruled by Austria. For many years this situation led to ill feeling between the two countries. While it did not have so direct a bearing on the outbreak of the Great War as the question of Alsace-Lorraine, it nevertheless largely explains the entrance of Italy into the war on the side of the Allies.

Interwar

• Post war: understand the difficulties in redrawing the map of Europe (ethnic divisions,strategic considerations)

After World War II, redrawing the map of Europe posed significant challenges due to a combination of ethnic divisions and strategic considerations. Let’s explore these difficulties:

Ethnic Divisions:

Balkans: The Balkans region underwent radical changes. New independent nations emerged, including Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, and later Kosovo. These redrawing of borders highlighted the ongoing challenges of managing diversity and fostering stability in the post-Cold War era.

German Expulsions: Millions of German settlers were forcibly expelled and sent back to Germany after the war. Ethnic Germans in border regions like the Sudetenland also fled or were expelled. Allied opinion was divided about these expulsions.

Strategic Considerations:

Geopolitical Shifts: The post-war landscape saw geopolitical shifts, with the emergence of new power centers and alliances. Balancing interests and maintaining stability required careful consideration.

Cold War Context: The Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union influenced decisions about borders and spheres of influence. The division of Germany into East and West, for instance, reflected this geopolitical struggle.

Balance of Power: Redrawing borders involved ensuring a balance of power among European nations. This required negotiations, compromises, and addressing historical grievances.

In summary, the post-war period witnessed complex negotiations and trade-offs as Europe grappled with both ethnic diversity and strategic imperatives. The process of redrawing the map was multifaceted, reflecting the challenges of creating a stable and integrated Europe

• Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles, signed on June 28, 1919, at the Paris Peace Conference marked the end of World War I. It was a peace document between the Allied and associated powers (including the United States, France, and the United Kingdom) and Germany. Notably, Germany, Austria, and Hungary did not participate in drafting the treaty.

The 4 key people involved were U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, and French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau.

The treaty imposed heavy debt payments on Germany and included the controversial War Guilt clause, which blamed Germany for the war and had significant implications for the outbreak of World War II

The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, imposed several key terms on Germany as a result of World War I. Here are the main provisions:

Exclusion from the League of Nations: Germany was barred from joining the newly established League of Nations, an international organization aimed at preventing future wars.

Demilitarization of the Rhineland: All fortifications in the Rhineland and 31 miles east of the river were to be demolished, and new construction was forbidden. Allied troops occupied the western part of the Rhineland to enforce the treaty’s terms.

Saar Coalfields to France: The Saar region, with its rich coal mines, was given to France for 15 years as compensation for war-related destruction and reparations.

Territorial Concessions: Germany lost roughly 13% of its European territory and all overseas colonies. Alsace-Lorraine went to France, and other territorial adjustments were made.

• Woodrow Wilson - understand foreign policy post WW1

U.S. President, Woodrow Wilson’s foreign policy during and after World War I was significant and shaped the course of international relations. Let’s delve into the key aspects:

Neutrality and World War I:

Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality.

He sought to broker a peace agreement between the belligerents, emphasizing diplomacy over military intervention.

The Fourteen Points:

In 1918, Wilson articulated the Fourteen Points, which were guidelines for rebuilding the postwar world.

These points included ideas about freedom of the seas, free trade, national self-determination, and dismantling European empires to create new states

Unfortunately, the Fourteen Points did not fully materialize, but they embodied elements of what we now call globalization.

League of Nations and Peace Treaties:

Wilson played a crucial role in reorganizing world affairs after the war.

The Treaty of Versailles emerged from the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, establishing the League of Nations.

The League aimed to prevent future conflicts and promote cooperation among nations4.

In summary, Wilson’s foreign policy focused on diplomacy, neutrality, and the pursuit of a more peaceful world order. His vision left a lasting impact on international relations.

• Wilson’s Fourteen Points

Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points were outlined during World War I as proposals for a postwar peace settlement. Here they are in order:

1. Open covenants of peace ,openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view.

2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants.

3. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.

4. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety.

5. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty, the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined.

6. The evacuation of all Russian territory and a settlement of all questions affecting Russia to secure her unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for independent political development and national policy.

7. Belgium’s restoration to full sovereignty.

8. Territorial adjustments in Europe to be made according to the principle of self-determination.

9. Restoration of invaded countries to their former governments.

10. Readjustment of Italy’s borders along national lines.

11. Autonomy for the peoples of Austria-Hungary.

12. Self-government for the Ottoman Empire’s non-Turkish populations.

13. An independent Poland with access to the sea.

14. A League of Nations to ensure collective security and prevent future wars

These points aimed to create a more just and peaceful world after the war, but unfortunately, they faced challenges in implementation and did not fully prevent future conflicts

• Examples of foreign policy: mutual deterrence, armed intervention, international sanctions, multilateral disarmament

Foreign policy refers to a nation’s strategies for interacting with other countries to protect its interests. Here are some examples:

Mutual Deterrence: This involves maintaining military strength to discourage aggression from other nations. For instance, during the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union relied on nuclear deterrence to prevent direct conflict.

Armed Intervention: Sometimes, countries use military force to address threats or protect their interests abroad. Examples include humanitarian interventions or responding to terrorist threats.

International Sanctions: Nations impose economic or diplomatic sanctions on other countries to influence their behavior. These can range from trade restrictions to diplomatic isolation.

Multilateral Disarmament: Efforts to reduce weapons globally through international agreements. For instance, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons aims at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons.

Remember that foreign policy can take various forms, and each country’s approach depends on its unique circumstances and priorities

• Locarno Pact 1925 and The Kellogg Pact 1928

Locarno Pact (1925):

The Locarno Pact was a series of agreements signed on December 1, 1925, in Locarno, Switzerland.

Participants: Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain, and Italy.

Key Points:

Mutual guarantee of peace in western Europe.

Treaty ensured that the German-Belgian and Franco-German frontiers (as fixed by the Treaty of Versailles) were inviolable.

Germany, Belgium, and France committed to never attacking each other except in “legitimate defense” or due to League of Nations obligations.

Disputes were to be settled through peaceful means.

If a breach occurred, signatories would defend the party adjudged by the League to be the attacked party.

Also included treaties of guarantee between France and Poland, and France and Czechoslovakia.

Consequence: Allied troops were evacuated from the Rhineland in 1930, five years ahead of schedule.

Interpretation: Germany renounced force to change its western frontiers but only agreed to arbitration for its eastern frontiers. Great Britain promised to defend Belgium and France but not Poland and Czechoslovakia.

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928):

Also known as the Pact of Paris.

Signed in 1928 by 62 countries, including Germany.

Aim: To renounce war as an instrument of national policy.

Pledged signatories to settle disputes through peaceful means.

Although it lacked enforcement mechanisms, it reflected a desire for global peace and cooperation.

• Holodomor famine 1932-33

The Holodomor was a man-made famine that devastated Ukraine from 1932 to 1933, peaking in the late spring of 1933. It was part of a broader Soviet famine that also affected grain-growing regions in Soviet Russia and Kazakhstan1. Here are some key points about the Holodomor:

Origins and Causes:

The famine resulted from Soviet leader Joseph Stalin’s decision to collectivize agriculture in 1929.

Collectivization forced peasants to give up their land, property, and housing to collective farms.

Wealthier peasants (kulaks) and those resisting collectivization were deported.

This led to a drop in production, disorganization of the rural economy, and food shortages.

Peasant rebellions erupted in parts of Ukraine due to collectivization.

Ukrainian-Specific Impact:

The Ukrainian famine was deadlier due to political decisions specifically targeting Ukraine.

Stalin’s policies exacerbated the crisis, leading to mass starvation.

The term Holodomor comes from Ukrainian words for hunger (holod) and extermination (mor).

Human Toll:

Millions of Ukrainians perished during this tragic period.

Empty villages and emaciated people and animals were common sights.

The famine had devastating effects on Ukrainian society and culture.

Remember that the Holodomor remains a painful chapter in history, and its impact is still felt today.

• Russia and industrialization 1929-34

During the period from 1929 to 1934, the Soviet Union embarked on an ambitious industrialization drive. Here are some key points:

1. The Five-Year Plans: The Soviet government introduced a series of Five-Year Plans to accelerate industrial growth. The First Five-Year Plan (1929–1933) aimed to transform the predominantly agrarian state into a leading industrial power.

2. Heavy Industry Focus: The primary focus was on heavy industry, including steel, machinery, and infrastructure. The plan emphasized large-scale projects like the Dneproges dam and the Magnitogorsk foundries.

3. Giantism and Propaganda: The Soviet regime often prioritized grandiose projects, leading to inefficiencies and waste. For instance, the Baltic–White Sea Canal, completed in 1933, employed hundreds of thousands of forced laborers but proved almost useless.

4. Growth Rate Claims: While extravagant claims were made about production increases, the actual growth rate was around 3.5 percent per year—similar to Germany’s growth during the same period.

5. Stalin’s Role: Stalin played a significant role in setting ambitious targets and ensuring the plans’ implementation.

WWII

• Axis and Allied Powers

During World War II, there were two major alliances: the Axis powers and the Allied powers

Axis Powers:

The Axis alliance consisted of Germany, Italy, and Japan as the principal partners.

These countries recognized German and Italian dominance in continental Europe, as well as Japanese domination over East Asia.

Five other European states joined the Axis during World War II: Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Slovakia, and Croatia.

All of Germany’s European Axis allies participated to some degree in the persecution and murder of Jews during the Holocaust.

The decline and fall of the Axis alliance began in 1943

Allied Powers:

The Allies were led by Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union.

Other key members included China and France (while it was unoccupied).

They formally allied by signing the Declaration by United Nations on January 1, 1942.

Unlike the Axis powers, the Allies developed institutions to coordinate foreign policy and direct combined military operations.

The Allies fought against the Axis on multiple fronts across Europe, Africa, Asia, and the oceans

• Understand the expansionist policies of fascist governments: Lebensraum and

Anschluss, 1938 Sudetenland

The expansionist policies of fascist governments during the late 1930s.

Lebensraum:

Definition: In Nazi ideology, “Lebensraum” referred to the expansion of Germany to the east. It aimed to establish unity between the German people (Volk) and the land (the Nazi concept of “Blood and Soil”).

Significance: Lebensraum became a central foreign policy objective during the Third Reich.

Goal: The Nazis sought to acquire additional territory in Eastern Europe to accommodate their population and resources.

Anschluss (Annexation of Austria):

Date: On March 11–13, 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria.

Context: Austria had a growing pro-Nazi sentiment since 1933, and the Nazis assassinated Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss in 1934.

Significance: The Anschluss demonstrated Nazi disdain for the post-World War I European order. It was the first act of territorial expansion by Nazi Germany. European Response: Other European powers did not punish the Nazis for violating international treaties, accepting the Anschluss as an act of appeasement.

Sudetenland Crisis:

Background: The Sudetenland was a region bordering Germany within Czechoslovakia, inhabited by an ethnic German majority.

Hitler’s Demand: In 1938, Hitler demanded that Czechoslovakia surrender the Sudetenland to Germany.

Munich Agreement: The Munich Agreement (September 1938) allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland without military conflict, further appeasing Nazi territorial ambitions.

These expansionist policies significantly impacted Europe and set the stage for World War II.

• Chamberlain and appeasement of Hitler

Neville Chamberlain, who served as British Prime Minister from 1937 to 1940, is best known for his policy of “appeasement” toward Adolf Hitler’s Germany. Here are the key points:

1. Appeasement Strategy:

Appeasement is a diplomatic strategy aimed at avoiding war by making concessions to an aggressive foreign power.

In the 1930s, the British government pursued appeasement towards Nazi Germany.

This pragmatic approach reflected British domestic concerns and diplomatic philosophy at the time.

1. Munich Agreement (1938):

The Munich Agreement is the most famous example of appeasement.

It was signed by Britain, France, Germany, and Italy in 1938.

Under this agreement, Britain and France allowed Hitler to annex a region of Czechoslovakia (the Sudetenland) without military intervention.

1. Hitler’s Aggressive Policies:

Adolf Hitler, as leader of Nazi Germany, pursued an aggressive foreign policy.

The Nazis aimed to overturn the Treaty of Versailles, which had limited Germany’s economic and military power after World War I.

Hitler sought to unite all Germans in a Nazi empire and acquire “living space” (Lebensraum) in eastern Europe.

1. Chamberlain’s Belief:

Neville Chamberlain believed that negotiation with Hitler was possible in good faith.

He hoped that appeasing Hitler’s demands would prevent war.

However, others warned that Hitler could not be trusted by normal international standards.

1. Outcome:

Despite appeasement efforts, Hitler remained determined to conquer territory and wage war.

In 1939, Britain declared war on Germany, and World War II began.

Chamberlain’s Munich Agreement has become synonymous with appeasement, although some historians argue that it allowed Britain valuable time to strengthen its defenses against Hitler’s military.

• League of Nations failure - Collective Security Principles

Collective security is a multilateral security arrangement between states. In this system, each state accepts that an attack on one state concerns all and merits a collective response by all. The League of Nations and the United Nations were both founded on this principle. However, despite its promise, collective security has faced challenges in practice. Conflicts of interest among states, especially major powers, hindered effective implementation. For instance, during the Manchurian Crisis, Japan’s occupation of part of China (both League members) revealed the failure of collective security1. To make collective security work, nations must be willing to apply sanctions and even go to war against aggressors simultaneously2. Unfortunately, achieving this level of commitment has proven difficult.

• Manchurian crisis – significance

The Manchurian Crisis, also known as the Mukden Incident, was a pivotal event in modern Japanese history. Here’s why it was significant:

• Aggression and Weakness of the League of Nations:

In September 1931, the Japanese Imperial Army invaded Manchuria, alleging that Chinese soldiers had tried to bomb a South Manchurian Railway train.

The League of Nations, tasked with maintaining peace, responded weakly and indecisively. It failed to prevent Japan’s aggression.

This incident highlighted the League’s inability to enforce its rules and demonstrated its weakness.

• Powerful Countries Escaping Accountability:

The crisis revealed that powerful nations could act aggressively without facing consequences.

Japan’s occupation of Manchuria went unchecked, setting a precedent for other countries to pursue their interests through force.

• Path to World War II:

The Manchurian Crisis marked the first decisive step toward all-out war with China

It contributed to the gradual militarization of Japan and strained international relations.

In summary, the Manchurian Crisis exposed the League of Nations’ limitations and paved the way for further conflict in East Asia

• Why people became disenchanted with the democratic process in the 1930s

During the 1930s, several factors contributed to people becoming disenchanted with the democratic process:

Great Depression: The Great Depression was a severe economic crisis that affected the United States and other countries. High unemployment rates, widespread poverty, and economic instability led many to lose faith in the existing democratic systems. People struggled to find work, feed their families, and maintain their livelihoods, which eroded confidence in the government’s ability to address these issues effectively.

Political Turmoil: The 1930s witnessed significant political upheaval. Some Americans flirted with Marxist movements and ideas, while others looked to the Soviet Union as a potential model for a more humane society. Fascist movements also gained strength in Europe during this time. These ideological shifts created uncertainty and disillusionment with democratic institutions.

Totalitarian Threats: The rise of totalitarian ideologies in Europe and Japan, such as Nazism and fascism, alarmed many Americans. Faced with the specter of authoritarian regimes, people began to appreciate the virtues of democracy and the essential decency of ordinary citizens. This reaffirmation of democratic values contrasted with the disillusionment of the 1920s, where some intellectuals had shown little interest in politics or social movements.

In summary, the Great Depression, political turmoil, and the threat of totalitarianism all contributed to people’s disenchantment with the democratic process during the 1930s. Despite these challenges, democracy ultimately endured and even saw significant political innovation through Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal reforms.

• Key concepts: annexation, appeasement, confrontation, demilitarization.

Annexation:

Annexation refers to the forcible acquisition of territory by one state from another. It often involves incorporating a region or territory into the political boundaries of the annexing state.

For example, Hitler’s aggressive foreign policy led to the annexation of German-speaking lands around Germany, such as the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia1

Appeasement:

Appeasement is a diplomatic policy where a state grants concessions to an aggressive foreign power in the hope of avoiding conflict. It involves making political and material compromises to satisfy the aggressor’s desires and prevent war.

The most famous instance of appeasement occurred in the lead-up to World War II. European powers, including Britain and France, failed to confront German expansionism, Italian aggression in Africa, and Japanese policies in China. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain notably followed an appeasement policy until 1938.

The legacy of World War I and public reluctance for European conflict contributed to the appeasement approach. Additionally, economic challenges during the Great Depression affected defense spending and military readiness in the 1930s.

Confrontation:

Confrontation refers to direct opposition or resistance to an aggressive action or policy. In the context of appeasement, it would involve standing up to expansionist powers rather than granting concessions.

Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement changed only when Hitler reneged on promises made during the Munich Conference, leading to the realization that dictators’ ambitions could not be quelled through appeasement1.

Demilitarization:

Demilitarization involves reducing or eliminating military forces in a specific area or region. It aims to promote peace and prevent conflict.

An example is the demilitarization of the Rhineland after World War I, where restrictions were placed on German military presence in the region to maintain stability

• Benito Mussolini and ultranationalism in Italy

Benito Mussolini, one of the most famous fascists of the 20th century, played a significant role in shaping Italy’s political landscape. Let’s delve into his rise to power and his embrace of ultranationalism:

Early Years and Socialist Background:

Mussolini began as a young socialist, editing the official daily newspaper of Italy’s Socialist Party, Avanti!, in the early 20th century.

However, he split with the movement due to his support for Italy’s entry into World War I. His views shifted away from orthodox Marxism.

Founding the Fascist Movement:

After World War I, Italy faced postwar problems, and many Italians turned to socialism.

Mussolini, alarmed by the Socialists’ electoral gains, created the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (Italian Combat Squads) in 1919. This precursor to his Fascist Party engaged in violence against Socialists and other opponents.

In 1921, Mussolini officially founded the Fascist Party, emphasizing national unity through strength and discipline. The party’s name was derived from the Italian word for bundle (fascio), symbolizing unity.

Shift to Nationalism and Authoritarianism:

Mussolini denounced socialism and embraced Italian nationalism.

His views centered on “revolutionary nationalism,” transcending class lines. He believed that nationalism and militarism were key to revolutionary change.

Mussolini projected an image of himself as a powerful, indispensable leader, crushing opposition with violence.

Alliance with Hitler and Ruling Italy:

During World War II, Mussolini allied with Adolf Hitler.

He ruled Italy until 1943 when he was voted out of power by his own Grand Council and subsequently arrested.

In summary, Mussolini’s journey from socialism to ultranationalism led him to create the Fascist Party, which left a lasting impact on Italy’s history. His authoritarian rule and alliance with Hitler shaped the course of World War II and the fate of his nation

• Understand when nationalism becomes ultranationalism

Nationalism is the belief in the importance of a shared national identity, often based on common cultural or historical factors. It can foster unity, pride, and a sense of belonging within a country. However, it can also lead to a sense of superiority over other nations or groups, sometimes justifying discriminatory or aggressive actions1.

On the other hand, ultranationalism takes nationalism to an extreme level. It involves a belief in the inherent greatness of one’s own nation or culture, often accompanied by disdain for other nations or cultures. Ultranationalists may be willing to use violence or extreme measures to promote their interests and reject international cooperation or diplomacy.

In summary, while nationalism can be positive, ultranationalism becomes dangerous when it intensifies feelings of superiority and exclusion. Ultranationalism has been associated with some of history’s worst atrocities, such as the Holocaust and other genocides

• Primary motivation for Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor

Japan attacked the U.S. Pacific Fleet at its base in Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The primary motivation behind this attack was oil.

• Understand the inability of the United States to remain isolationist (Franklin Roosevelt)

Isolationism is a policy of avoiding involvement with other countries, especially in political or economic matters.

During Franklin Roosevelt’s presidency, the United States grappled with the question of isolationism. Initially, there was strong sentiment favoring isolationism, especially in Congress. However, Roosevelt recognized that a Nazi-dominated Europe would threaten U.S. interests. As World War II unfolded, he shifted away from isolationism. One significant moment was when he fired his Secretary of War, Harry Woodring, who advocated for noninterventionist policies. Roosevelt’s actions marked the end of American isolationism.

• Understand the different nature of conflict between WWI and WWII

Period and Duration:

WWI: Fought from 1914 to 1918 (4 years).

WWII: Spanned from 1939 to 1945 (6 years).

Causes and Triggers:

WWI: Triggered by the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria in 1914. Root causes included militarism, imperialism, nationalism, and alliance systems.

WWII: Caused by factors such as the rise of Adolf Hitler, political and economic instability in Germany, and the harsh conditions of the Treaty of Versailles.

Alliances and Participants:

WWI: Involved the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria) against the Allied Powers (France, Britain, Russia, Italy, Japan, Canada, and later the U.S.).

WWII: Featured the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) opposing the Allies (France, Britain, the U.S., the Soviet Union, Canada, and China).

Casualties:

WWI: Estimated 10 million military deaths, 7 million civilian deaths, 21 million wounded, and 7.7 million missing or imprisoned.

WWII: Over 60 million people died, including 38 to 55 million civilians. Genocide by the Nazis added to the devastation.

Methods of Warfare:

WWI: Trench warfare, artillery, machine guns, infantry assaults, tanks, early airplanes, and poisonous gas.

WWII: Nuclear power, missiles, submarines, tanks, and complex encryption codes. Germany used Blitzkrieg tactics.

Outcomes:

WWI: Defeat of the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires.

WWII: Ideological conflicts (fascism vs. democracy), global participation, and significant battles across multiple continents.

In summary, WWI was largely European with trench warfare, while WWII involved more nations and had a broader global impact.

• Reasons and justifications for use of atomic bomb

The decision to use atomic bombs during World War II remains a topic of debate. Here are some arguments in support of that decision:

Saving American Lives: The main argument is that using the atomic bomb saved American lives. Without it, the alternative would have been two D-Day-style land invasions of the Japanese homeland. These operations, codenamed Operation Downfall, would have resulted in extremely high casualties due to factors like Japanese resistance, lack of good landing sites, and the threat of mass suicide by Japanese forces.

Quick End to the War: President Truman believed that using the bomb would lead to a swift end to the war. It was seen as a way to achieve victory at the earliest possible moment2.

Diplomatic Gains and Soviet Relations: Some argued that demonstrating the bomb’s power could provide leverage in post-war diplomacy, especially in the growing rivalry with the Soviet Union.

Hatred and Revenge: The attack on Pearl Harbor fueled strong anti-Japanese sentiments among Americans. Using the bomb was seen as revenge for that attack.

However, it’s essential to recognize that there are opposing viewpoints as well. Critics argue that the bombings were unnecessary, constituted a war crime, or even genocide. The decision remains a complex and controversial historical event.

Genocide

• 5 act of genocide define by United Nation Genocide Conventions

Genocide refers to the deliberate and systematic destruction of a group of people based on their ethnicity, nationality, religion, or race1. The United Nations Genocide Convention defines it as any of five specific acts committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group2. These acts include:

1. Killing members of the group: The intentional taking of lives.

2. Imposing measures to prevent births within the group: Efforts to hinder population growth.

3. Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group: Separating children from their cultural or ethnic identity.

4. Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group: Inflicting physical or psychological suffering.

5. Deliberately inflicting conditions of life calculated to bring about the group’s physical destruction: Creating circumstances that lead.

• 8 stages of genocide: classification, symbolization, dehumanization, organization,

polarization, preparation, extermination, denial.

The eight stages of genocide, as outlined by Dr. George Stanton, provide insight into the process leading to mass atrocities. Let’s explore them:

1. Classification: This stage involves dividing the population based on racial, religious, or ethnic lines. For instance, in Rwanda, the Tutsi and Hutu were classified along ethnic divisions, which contributed to conflict.

2. Symbolization: Groups are labeled with specific names, languages, dress codes, or religious symbols. For example, during the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia, people from the Eastern Zone were required to wear blue scarves, while Nazi Germany forced Jews to wear yellow stars.

3. Dehumanization: In this stage, a targeted group is portrayed as sub-human, often through negative propaganda. For instance, a Rwandan newspaper labeled Tutsis as “cockroaches.” Currently, Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar face similar dehumanization.

4. Organization: Genocide requires collective action and planning. Nazi Germany’s “final solution” exemplifies highly bureaucratic organization, while other cases involve state-backed militias to avoid blame1.

5. Polarization: Extremists further drive groups apart, forcing non-participants to separate from the targeted group through intimidation.

6. Preparation: During this stage, perpetrators prepare for the actual genocide. It involves identifying victims, securing resources, and planning logistics.

7. Extermination: The most brutal stage, where mass killings occur. Examples include the Holocaust and the Rwandan genocide.

8. Denial: After the atrocities, denial seeks to erase evidence and prevent accountability. Acknowledging these stages is crucial for prevention1.

Remember, understanding these stages helps prevent such horrors from occurring.

• UN convention of the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), also known as the Genocide Convention, is an international treaty that criminalizes genocide. It obligates state parties to enforce the prohibition against genocide. Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 9, 1948, the Genocide Convention signifies the international community’s commitment to “never again” allow the atrocities committed during the Second World War.

• Understand background of Rwandan genocide: Tutsis and Hutus

The Rwandan Genocide of 1994 was a planned campaign of mass murder that occurred over approximately 100 days in April–July 1994. It was conceived by extremist elements of Rwanda’s majority Hutu population, who aimed to kill the minority Tutsi population and anyone opposing their genocidal intentions.

Beyond Nationalism Review

• Key concepts: economic internationalism, multilateralism, isolationism, bilateralism, supranationalism, unilateralism

Economic internationalism refers to a policy or approach where countries actively engage in economic interactions with other nations. It involves promoting trade, investment, and cooperation across borders

Multilateralism: This refers to diplomatic interactions involving three or more states. It relies on international norms, respect for institutions, and cooperation among nations. The United Nations (UN) is a prime example of a multilateral institution.

Isolationism is a national policy of avoiding political or economic entanglements with other countries

Bilateralism: In bilateral interactions, two states engage directly with each other. They negotiate agreements, treaties, or trade deals without involving other parties.

Supranationalism: This concept involves pooling sovereignty by participating in supranational organizations (e.g., the European Union). While it promotes international interests, it also diminishes individual national sovereignty

Unilateralism: When a powerful state pursues its foreign policy independently, disregarding multilateral norms, it practices unilateralism. It acts in its own interest without necessarily adhering to international institutions.

• .Understand how United States’ foreign policy switched from one of isolationism to

Intervention

Let’s explore how the United States’ foreign policy shifted from isolationism to intervention:

Isolationism Before World War I:

From its early days, the United States followed a policy of isolationism and neutrality. American leaders believed that except for free trade, self-defense, and humanitarian emergencies, the U.S. should avoid permanent alliances that didn’t serve its interests.

President Woodrow Wilson maintained neutrality during World War I, emphasizing non-interference and winning re-election with the slogan “he kept us out of war.”

However, as the war escalated and the devastation became apparent, Wilson shifted his stance.

World War I and Intervention:

Wilson asked Congress for permission to enter the war, framing it as making the world “safe for democracy.”

Although the U.S. didn’t officially join the Allies, it fought alongside them against Germany and other Central Powers.

The war experience shaped the U.S. as a defender of freedom and democracy globally, altering its foreign policy.

Isolationism in the 1930s:

After World War I, the U.S. retreated from global affairs and embraced isolationist policies.

Isolationists advocated non-involvement in European and Asian conflicts but continued economic expansion and protection of interests in Latin America2.

Shift to Interventionism:

The rise of fascism in Europe during the 1930s prompted a change. Americans feared fascism would conquer Europe unless they acted.

This fear triggered the end of American isolationism and marked the era of American interventionism3.

In summary, the U.S. transitioned from isolationism to intervention due to World War I’s impact and the threat posed by fascism in Europe. The Cold War further solidified its interventionist stance.

• Debate the legitimacy of humanitarian intervention

The legitimacy of humanitarian intervention has been a subject of debate in international relations. Let’s explore some key points:

Definition and Purpose:

Humanitarian intervention refers to the use of military force in a state without its approval, with the aim of achieving socioeconomic objectives (e.g., saving lives, providing basic necessities) for the benefit of civilians.

It often involves addressing human rights abuses, preventing atrocities, and promoting stability.

Historical Context:

There have been three eras of humanitarian intervention: pre-World War II, Cold War, and post-Cold War.

The Western intellectual tradition of just war serves as the foundation for contemporary international law governing armed conflict. It recognizes the right of sovereigns to use force to protect the human community, especially when innocent lives are at risk.

Debates and Perspectives:

Proponents argue for humanitarian intervention based on legitimacy and the consequences of non-intervention.

Opponents raise concerns about illegitimacy, practical constraints, and negative consequences

Skeptics sympathize with the humanitarian impulse but worry about methods and outcomes1.

Challenges:

Balancing the principle of national sovereignty with the responsibility to protect civilians remains a challenge.

The United Nations’ role in authorizing interventions and the tension between legality and legitimacy are ongoing issues.

In summary, while humanitarian intervention aims to protect vulnerable populations, its legitimacy remains a complex and contested issue in international relations. Different perspectives continue to shape the discourse on when and how to intervene.

• Understand impact of international organizations: Arctic Council, WHO, La

francophone, Right to Play, World Wide Fund for Wildlife

Arctic Council: The Arctic Council plays a crucial role in addressing environmental, economic, and cultural challenges in the Arctic region. It focuses on sustainable development, environmental protection, and emergency response1. Indigenous participation is also significant within the Council2.

World Health Organization (WHO): WHO is a global health organization that coordinates efforts to improve health worldwide. It sets standards, provides technical assistance, and responds to health emergencies.

Organisation internationale de la Francophonie :La Francophonie: La Francophonie promotes French language and culture globally. It fosters cooperation among French-speaking countries in areas like education, culture, and sustainable development.

Right To Play: This organization uses sports and play to empower children and youth in disadvantaged communities. It promotes education, health, and social development.

World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF): WWF focuses on conservation, sustainable development, and biodiversity protection. It works to address environmental challenges and promote a balanced relationship between humans and nature.

• From a list, identify what is and what isn’t an international organization

An international organization is a group or association made up of multiple countries, formed to achieve specific goals or address common issues. These organizations can be formal or informal and are usually established through treaties or agreements between countries. They have a defined structure, membership, and purpose. Examples include the United Nations (UN), World Trade Organization (WTO), World Health Organization (WHO), and International Monetary Fund (IMF) among others.

• Goals and Functions of the WHO

The World Health Organization (WHO) works worldwide to promote health, keep the world safe, and serve the vulnerable.

Their goals include ensuring universal health coverage for a billion more people, protecting a billion more people from health emergencies, and improving the health and well-being of another billion people1. The WHO achieves this through various actions, such as focusing on primary health care, sustainable financing, essential medicines, and health workforce training. Additionally, they prepare for emergencies, address social determinants, and promote intersectoral approaches for health.

• Examples of Collective Security: Rwanda, Myanmar, Yugoslavia, South Sudan, Cyprus

Collective security is an important concept in international relations. Let’s explore some examples of collective security in practice:

Rwanda: After the Rwandan genocide in 1994, the United Nations Security Council authorized military intervention to address the grave human rights violations and restore peace in the region1.

Myanmar (Burma): The situation in Myanmar has drawn international attention due to human rights abuses and political instability. Collective security mechanisms have been discussed as a way to address these challenges.

Yugoslavia: During the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s, the UN Security Council took action to prevent further escalation and protect civilians. This included peacekeeping missions and sanctions.

South Sudan: The establishment of South Sudan as an independent state in 2011 was accompanied by collective efforts to maintain stability and prevent conflict.

Cyprus: The UN has been involved in peacekeeping efforts in Cyprus since the 1960s, aiming to maintain stability and prevent further hostilities between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots.

Remember that collective security involves cooperation among states to address threats to international peace and security. It emphasizes peaceful dispute resolution and, when necessary, collective military action authorized.

• Civil Wars: Darfur 2003, Rwanda 1994, Yugoslavia 1992, Myanmar 2007, Syria, Yemen, Mexican drug war

Darfur Conflict (2003–present): Also known as the War in Darfur, this major armed conflict in Sudan began in 2003. The Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) rebelled against the Sudanese government, accusing it of oppressing Darfur’s non-Arab population. The violence has been devastating, often compared to the 1994 Rwandan genocide.

Rwandan Civil War (1990–1994): This conflict occurred between the Rwandan Armed Forces (representing the government) and the rebel Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). It stemmed from longstanding tensions between the Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups. The war ended with the RPF’s victory, the signing of the Arusha Accords, and the tragic Rwandan genocide.

Yugoslav Wars (1991–2001): These were a series of ethnic conflicts, wars of independence, and insurgencies that took place in the former Yugoslavia. They involved various regions seeking independence, leading to significant violence and territorial changes.

Myanmar (2007–present): Myanmar has faced internal conflicts for decades. The ongoing civil war involves various ethnic groups seeking autonomy or independence from the central government.

Syrian Civil War (2011–present): This conflict began during the Arab Spring and escalated into a devastating civil war. It involves multiple factions, including government forces, rebel groups, and ex

Yemeni Civil War (2014–present): Yemen has been embroiled in a complex civil war, with Houthi rebels fighting against government forces and a Saudi-led coalition. The humanitarian crisis in Yemen is one of the worst globally.

Mexican Drug War (2006–present): While not a traditional civil war, Mexico’s drug war has led to intense violence between drug cartels, government forces, and civilians. It has had a significant impact on Mexico’s security and stability. tremist organizations.

• Understand international role in the Iraq War

The Iraq War, also known as the Second Persian Gulf War, was a protracted armed conflict that took place in Iraq from 2003 to 2011. Here are some key points about the war:

Invasion (2003): The conflict began with the invasion of Iraq by a United States-led coalition that overthrew the Ba’athist government of Saddam Hussein.

Two Phases:

Conventional War (2003): A brief conflict in March–April 2003, during which coalition forces defeated Iraqi military forces.

Occupation (2003–2011): A U.S.-led occupation of Iraq followed by a protracted Iraqi armed insurgency against it.

International Role:

United Kingdom: The UK was a key ally in the invasion, contributing troops and resources.

Other Countries: Several other nations also participated, albeit with smaller contingents.

Opposition: The international community condemned Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990, leading to the Gulf War. UN sanctions were imposed to hinder Iraq’s arms programs.

Canada: Canada was part of the coalition but based its decision on faulty intelligence regarding Iraq’s WMDs.

UN Inspections: During the mid-1990s, UN inspections uncovered proscribed weapons and prohibited technology in Iraq.

In summary, the Iraq War involved a coalition of countries, an initial invasion, and a subsequent occupation, with significant international implications.

• Differentiate between peacemakers and peacekeepers

Peacemakers:

Objective: Peacemakers strive to create peace and attempt to reconcile things and people that are at odds with one another.

Role: They actively engage in conflict resolution, mediation, and reconciliation efforts.

Example: Imagine two warring factions in a civil war. Peacemakers would work tirelessly to bring these groups to the negotiating table, find common ground, and facilitate a peaceful resolution.

Peacekeepers:

Objective: Peacekeepers, on the other hand, work hard to avoid all conflict.

Role: They are deployed in conflict zones to maintain stability, prevent violence, and protect civilians.

Example: The United Nations often deploys peacekeeping forces to regions experiencing civil wars or tribal conflicts. These peacekeepers focus on maintaining a fragile peace by monitoring ceasefires, patrolling borders, and ensuring compliance with agreements.

In summary, peacemakers actively work toward resolving conflicts, while peacekeepers focus on maintaining stability and preventing further escalation. Both roles play crucial parts in promoting peace and preventing war

• Rules of peacekeeping

UN peacekeeping operations are guided by three fundamental principles:

1. Consent of the parties: UN peacekeeping operations are deployed with the consent of the main parties involved in the conflict. This commitment by the parties to a political process allows the UN the necessary freedom of action to carry out its mandated tasks. However, consent at the local level may not always align with the main parties’ consent, especially in internally divided or volatile settings.

2. Impartiality: Peacekeepers must be impartial in their dealings with the conflict parties while executing their mandate. Impartiality doesn’t mean neutrality; rather, it involves upholding international norms and principles. A rigorous application of impartiality is essential for maintaining credibility and legitimacy.

3. Non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate: UN peacekeeping operations are not enforcement tools. However, they may use force at the tactical level, with Security Council authorization, for self-defence or to protect civilians under imminent threat1.

These principles ensure that peacekeeping operations maintain international peace and security effectively.

• Critics of the United Nation

The United Nations (UN) has faced various criticisms over the years. Here are some notable points:

Efficacy and Inaction: Critics argue that the UN lacks efficacy in preventing conflicts and enforcing its rulings. Some perceive it as ineffective in both pre-emptive measures and de-escalation of existing conflicts, ranging from social disputes to all-out wars.

Moral Relativism: Former Israeli ambassador Dore Gold criticized the UN for moral relativism. He highlighted instances where the organization showed ambiguity in responding to genocide and terrorism.

Threat to National Sovereignty: Critics claim that the UN threatens national sovereignty and promotes globalism. For instance, the John Birch Society campaigned against U.S. membership, viewing the UN as a vehicle for building a “One World Government”.

Controversial Decisions: The UN’s decisions have been controversial. For example, holding a moment of silence for North Korean dictator Kim Jong-il raised eyebrows among Western diplomats.

Despite these criticisms, the UN continues to play a crucial role in global affairs, even as it grapples with challenges and strives for improvement.

• United Nations Law of the Sea

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), also known as the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea Treaty, is an international agreement that establishes a legal framework for all marine and maritime activities. Adopted in 1982 and effective since 1994, UNCLOS provides rules governing the use of the world’s oceans and their resources. It enshrines the notion that ocean space issues are interconnected and need to be addressed comprehensively. The convention covers various aspects, including the territorial sea, exclusive economic zones, navigation rights, environmental protection, and more. It’s often referred to as the “constitution of the oceans” and has been ratified by 168 countries and the European Union

• Critics of the Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol, while a significant international agreement aimed at reducing CO₂ emissions, has faced criticism. Here are some key points:

Insufficient Ambition: Some argue that the protocol doesn’t go far enough to curb greenhouse emissions and prevent dangerous climate change. Niue, The Cook Islands, and Nauru even added notes expressing this concern when signing the protocol.

Cost-Benefit Analysis: Critics highlight that the costs of implementing the Kyoto Protocol may outweigh the benefits. Some view the standards set by Kyoto as overly optimistic, while others consider the agreement inequitable and inefficient in reducing emissions.

Alternative Approaches: Economists propose alternative approaches beyond the Kyoto Protocol. For instance, Russia’s Andrey Illarionov criticized the agreement, considering it discriminatory and not universal. He argued that major carbon dioxide emitters like the US, China, India, Brazil, and Mexico didn’t impose restrictions on themselves.

Base Year Controversy: The use of 1990 as the base year for emissions reduction targets has been controversial. Different countries had varying energy efficiency achievements in 1990. Some argue that per capita emissions should be considered to address inequality among developed and developing nations1.

James Hansen’s Critique: James E. Hansen, a prominent climate scientist, criticized the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP 15) for seeking an inefficient “cap and trade” system. He considered it counterproductive in limiting emissions.

In summary, while the Kyoto Protocol represents progress, it faces valid criticisms regarding its effectiveness and equity.

• Critics of the European Union

The European Union (EU) has grappled with debates surrounding its common currency, the Euro, and the sovereignty of national governments.

Critics of the European Union (EU) express a range of opinions and concerns. Let’s explore some of the key points raised by critics:

Euroscepticism:

Euroscepticism refers to criticism of the EU and European integration. Some people are skeptical about the EU’s policies, effectiveness, and impact on national sovereignty.

Critics often question the EU’s decision-making processes, bureaucracy, and democratic accountability.

Specific Criticisms:

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP): The EU’s agricultural policy has faced criticism for its subsidies and market distortions.

Regulated Labor Markets: Critics argue that rigid labor regulations contribute to higher structural rates of unemployment.

Deflationary Bias of the European Central Bank (ECB): Some believe that the ECB’s monetary policies favor deflationary outcomes.

Issues with the Euro: The single currency (Euro) has faced challenges related to economic disparities among member states.

Free Movement of Labor: While the principle of free movement is a cornerstone of the EU, critics highlight concerns about wage competition and social strain.

Moral and Cultural Critiques:

Opponents of European unification emphasize not only policy matters but also moral, cultural, and historical aspects. These critics often stress issues related to national identity and values

• Critics of COP 26

The 26th United Nations Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26) took place in Glasgow, Scotland, from October 31 to November 12, 20211. While the conference produced an agreement known as the Glasgow Climate Pact, some critics expressed dissatisfaction with certain aspects. Here are the key points:

Positive Aspects:

The Glasgow Climate Pact emphasized the need to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions.

For the first time, nations agreed to begin reducing coal-fired power and to eliminate subsidies on other fossil fuels.

Some countries committed to ending deforestation, reducing methane emissions, and moving investments into net-zero emissions companies.

Criticism and Shortcomings:

Critics argued that the conference fell short in several areas:

Emission Reduction Commitments: The agreement lacked stronger commitments to reduce emissions.

Loss and Damage Finance: There was no agreement on compensation for the “loss and damage” experienced by vulnerable developing countries.

Fossil Fuel Subsidies: Governments did not eliminate fossil fuel subsidies, which amounted to $5.9 trillion in 2020.

Exclusionary Nature: The conference faced criticism for logistical difficulties and exclusion of people with disabilities, as well as a lack of attendees from the Global South.

In summary, COP26 made progress but left room for improvement in addressing climate challenges. Scientists and activists continue to call for more ambitious actions to combat climate change.

• What are NGOs and why are they necessary?

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play a vital role in society. Here are some reasons why they are necessary:

Medical Care: NGOs provide essential medical services, especially during outbreaks and pandemics. For instance, Doctors Without Borders operates in 70 countries, while the Carter Center successfully campaigned to eradicate Guinea worm disease.

Assistance During Outbreaks: Local NGOs are crucial during crises like COVID-19 due to their community knowledge and trust. Plan India, part of Plan International, reached over 200,000 families with supplies during the pandemic.

Addressing Hunger: NGOs tackle food insecurity caused by wars, poverty, and climate change. Action Against Hunger advocates, provides emergency assistance, and supports farmers’ cooperatives.

Clean Water and Sanitation: NGOs work toward Goal 6 of the Sustainable Development Goals by providing safe drinking water and sanitation. Despite progress, around two billion people lack safe drinking water.

In summary, NGOs drive social change, provide humanitarian aid, and advocate for global welfare234. They fill gaps where governments and businesses may fall short, making them essential for a better world.

• Debate internationalist approach versus sovereignty. To what extent does internationallaw promote the sovereign will of the state?

Let’s delve into the fascinating interplay between internationalism and sovereignty, particularly within the context of international law.

Internationalism is a political principle that advocates greater cooperation among states and nations. It emphasizes global interconnectedness, shared responsibility, and the belief that humans should unite across national, cultural, and class boundaries to advance common interests1. Internationalists generally oppose nationalism and isolationism, supporting international institutions like the United Nations and promoting respect for diverse cultures.

On the other hand, sovereignty refers to a state’s supreme authority over its territory, government, and people. Historically, the doctrine of sovereignty allowed rulers to create laws without being bound by them. However, this view has evolved over time.

Here’s how international law intersects with the sovereign will of states:

1. Consent Mechanism: International law operates based on consent. States voluntarily participate in treaties, conventions, and agreements. While international law reflects statehood, it does not override a state’s authority. Instead, it serves as a tool used by states to regulate behavior and resolve disputes. Thus, international law is a reflection of state sovereignty because it relies on consent.

2. United Nations Security Council (UNSC): The UNSC, a key international institution, exemplifies the balance between sovereignty and global interests. Its structure grants veto power to five permanent members (P5), reflecting their historical influence. While this system acknowledges sovereign equality, it also perpetuates inequalities by favoring certain states.

3. Colonial Legacy: International law’s development has been influenced by Western-centric notions of sovereignty. Post-colonial states often find their will inadequately reflected due to historical power imbalances. Eurocentric states historically dominated lawmaking, shaping international norms and institutions.

4. Reciprocity: International law operates on the principle of reciprocity. States comply with rules to gain benefits from others. However, this reciprocity is often skewed, favoring powerful states. Thus, while international law reflects sovereign will, it disproportionately serves Western interests.

In summary, international law does reflect the sovereign will of states through consent, but it significantly fails to represent the post-colonial states’ perspectives. The tension between sovereignty and global cooperation remains a complex and evolving dynamic in our interconnected world.

EXTRA

• How did nationalism increase tensions in Europe prior to the outbreak of World War I?

Nationalism significantly contributed to the escalating tensions in Europe before World War I. Here are some key factors:

Armed Buildup: Nationalism fueled competition among nations, leading them to build up their armies and navies. This arms race intensified the sense of rivalry and mistrust between countries.

Balkan Crisis: The Balkans, a region in southeastern Europe, experienced heightened nationalism. The First Balkan War (1912) and the Second Balkan War (1913) were direct results of nationalist tensions. Balkan nations resisted pressure from the Ottoman Empire and Austro-Hungarian Empire, leading to conflict.

Volunteering for War: Nationalistic fervor motivated many to volunteer for the war effort, fighting on the front lines.

In summary, nationalism exacerbated existing rivalries, militarization, and distrust, ultimately contributing to the outbreak of World War I.

• How did “Italia Irredenta” impact Italy’s decision to enter World War One?

Italia Irredenta in the Italian language means "unredeemed Italy." It refers to territory adjoining Italy on the north and northeast, occupied by Italians at some time or another.

Italian irredentism played a significant role in Italy’s decision to enter World War I. The movement sought to bring under Italian rule various lands considered culturally, linguistically, or historically Italian but not part of the unified Italian Kingdom of 1870. These territories included Italian-speaking areas in Tyrol, Istria, Gorizia, Trieste, and the Dalmatian coastline, which remained part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until 1918. The specter of “unredeemed territories” under foreign (Habsburg) rule mobilized pro-interventionist groups at home, leading to Italy’s entry into the war in May 1915 on the side of the Allies. The Treaty of Versailles later addressed many irredentist claims.

• Nationalist vs Internationalist Interests

• The pursuit of national interests by a nation often affects not only the nation itself, but other nations as well. Many nation-states try to balance the interests of their own citizens with the interests of those outside the nation’s borders. Often, countries must decide between national interests and international interests.

• A nationalist might believe that the nation should spend its money on its own citizens first, and on citizens of other nations through foreign aid only if there is any money left over.

• An internationalist, on the other hand, might believe that a nation should care both for its own citizens and the greater group of world citizens

• Why Do Nations Pursue National Interests?

Nations pursue national interests for a variety of reasons, many of which center around:

• a nation’s survival and security

• a nation’s economic growth and power

• the maintenance of the quality of life for the people in the nation

• What is Foreign Policy

The national interests of a country may be reflected in its foreign policy. Foreign policy is a set of goals that outline how a country will interact with other countries.

• Themes of Canadian Foreign Policy (Historical and Contemporary)

• Independence

• Global Alliances

• Membership in International Organizations

• Anti- authoritarianism, totalitarianism, imperialism, and terrorism

• Peacekeeping

• Economic Interest

Foreign policy: a course of action that a sovereign nation takes in its conduct with other nation-states or international organizations.

• Sometimes, conflicts can arise because of contending national interests. Political leaders and governments that believe one of their primary responsibilities is to provide their citizens with an adequate standard of living.

• The problem that can arise from this goal is that there is a finite quantity of resources available to satisfy the needs and wants of nation-states. Most nations must deal with other nations in order to meet their people’s needs and wants, including security, and it is in this way that foreign policy comes into play.

• What happens when they don’t “get what they want” or they don’t agree on how to reach their goals?

• Canada's Arctic Foreign Policy

The Arctic is fundamental to Canada’s national identity. It is home to many Canadians, including indigenous peoples, across the Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, and the northern parts of many Canadian provinces. The Arctic is embedded in Canadian history and culture, and in the Canadian soul. The Arctic also represents tremendous potential for Canada’s future. Exercising sovereignty over Canada’s North, as over the rest of Canada, is our number one Arctic foreign policy priority.

In our Arctic foreign policy, the first and most important pillar towards recognizing the potential of Canada’s Arctic is the exercise of our sovereignty over the Far North. Canada has a rich history in the North, and Canada’s sovereignty is the foundation for realizing the full potential of Canada’s North, including its human dimension. This foundation is solid: Canada’s Arctic sovereignty is long-standing, well established and based on historic title, founded in part on the presence of Inuit and other indigenous peoples since time immemorial.

Canada exercises its sovereignty daily through good governance and responsible stewardship. It does so through the broad range of actions it undertakes as a government—whether related to social and economic development, Arctic science and research, environmental protection, the operations of the Canadian Forces or the activities of the Canadian Coast Guard and Royal Canadian Mounted Police. We exercise our sovereignty in the Arctic through our laws and regulations, as we do throughout Canada.

“In exercising our sovereignty...we are not only fulfilling our duty to the people who called this northern frontier home, and to the generations that will follow; we are also being faithful to all who came before us….” Prime Minister Stephen Harper, August 28, 2008, Inuvik, Northwest Territories

• What is the difference between domestic policy and foreign policy?

Domestic Policy: Guides decisions about what to do within the country. In Canada. Domestic policy may guide decisions about changing Federal laws, settling Aboriginal land claims and spending tax revenues.

Foreign Policy: Guides decisions about official relations with other countries. Foreign policy, which is often called external relations or foreign affairs may involve co-operating with international organization.

• World War 1 - Overview

• What: The first global scale war involving multiple nations

• When: Began in June 1914 and ended in November 1918

• Where: Occurred mostly on the continent of Europe

• Why: M.A.N.I.A. (Militarization, Alliances, Nationalism, Imperialism, Assassination)

• The Immediate Causes of World War I included:

• Crises in the Balkans

• The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

• Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This event occurred on June 28, 1914, and it was a key event that led to World War I

• Foreign Policy Decisions

• Who: Various Nation-States

• Allied Powers = Great Britain, France, Russia (later Italy and US)

• Central Powers = Germany, Austria-Hungary, The Ottoman Empire

• How: Huge scale attacks with new deadly technology including mechanized weapons, chemical weapons, long range artillery and air power

• Other: • Also known as the “Great War

The First World War lasted for four years and three months. It began on August 4, 1914 and ended on November 11, 1918. It involved sixty sovereign states and overthrew four Empires: The German Empire, The Austro-Hungarian Empire, The Ottoman Turk Empire, and the Tsarist Russian Empire. The war also gave birth to seven new nations, took ten million combatant lives (another 30 million were wounded), and cost millions of dollars. The Allies of World War I and Germany signed the Armistice, which marked the official ending of hostilities between the warring groups, on November 11, 1918. The Armistice, commemorated to this day on Remembrance Day, took effect on “the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month” of 1918. This marked the ceasefire on the Western Front.

• The Durham Report recommended the unification of Upper and Lower Canada, through a new Responsible Government.

The Durham Report, also known as Lord Durham’s Report, is a significant document in the history of Quebec, Ontario, Canada, and the British Empire. In 1838, British politician Lord Durham was sent to British North America to investigate the causes of the rebellions of 1837–38 in the colonies of Upper and Lower Canada. His Report on the Affairs of British North America (1839) led to several reforms and changes. Here are the key points:

Unification of the Canadas: Durham recommended merging the two Canadas (Upper and Lower Canada) into a single colony, which was accomplished through the Act of Union in 1841. This move aimed to create a more cohesive political entity.

Responsible Government: Durham’s report paved the way for responsible government. Although the British Parliament implemented the unification of the Canadas, they did not fully embrace responsible government at that time.

Cultural Bias: Durham believed that the problems in mostly French-speaking Lower Canada were ethnic rather than purely political. He famously described the situation as “two nations warring in the bosom of a single state.” His cultural bias against French Canadians influenced his recommendations, including assimilation through unification.

Overall, the Durham Report played a crucial role in shaping Canada’s political landscape and its eventual independence from Britain

• The FLQ Crisis

The October Crisis was a chain of political events in Canada that started in October 1970 when members of the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) kidnapped the provincial Labour Minister Pierre Laporte and British diplomat James Cross from his Montreal residence. These events saw the Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau invoking the War Measures Act for the first time in Canadian history during peacetime.

• National Energy Program (NEP)

The policy that placed a cap on the price of Albertan oil in the 1980s was called the National Energy Program (NEP). It was implemented by the Canadian federal government and aimed to counter the impact of rising world oil prices. However, it faced significant opposition in Alberta and contributed to economic challenges during that period1. The NEP was eventually dismantled in the mid-1980s, but its legacy remains as a symbol of Western alienation and tensions between Alberta and central Canada.

• The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed on March 3, 1918, marked Russia’s withdrawal from World War I. It was a separate peace treaty between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria). Under its terms, Russia lost control of Ukraine, Poland, Belarus, the Baltic governorates (now Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia), and its Caucasus provinces of Kars and Batum. The treaty took away a quarter of the population and nine-tenths of its coal mines from the former Russian Empire

• The Schlieffen Plan

The Schlieffen Plan was a strategic approach developed by General Count Alfred von Schlieffen, chief of the German General Staff, between 1891 and 1905. It aimed to address the possibility of a two-front war with France and Russia. The Objective was to defeat France swiftly while Russia mobilized its forces.

The Schlieffen Plan’s failure resulted from a combination of logistical challenges, unexpected events, and strategic miscalculations. It highlights the complexities of war and the need for adaptable strategies.

• Why did The United States entered World War I in 1917 due to several key events:

Sinking of the Lusitania: In 1915, a German U-boat sank the British ocean liner Lusitania, resulting in the deaths of nearly 1,200 people, including 128 Americans. This incident strained diplomatic relations between the U.S. and Germany and turned public opinion against Germany1.

Zimmermann Telegram: In 1917, the publication of the Zimmermann Telegram revealed Germany’s proposal for an alliance with Mexico against the United States. President Woodrow Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war against Germany in response2.

Submarine Attacks: Germany’s sinking of four more U.S. merchant ships in late March 1917 further escalated tensions. On April 6, 1917, the U.S. Congress officially declared war on Germany3.

These events collectively led to the U.S. involvement in World War I, marking a significant turning point in history.

• The Battle of Vimy Ridge

The Battle of Vimy Ridge, fought during the First World War from April 9 to 12, 1917, holds a significant place in Canada’s history. It is celebrated as Canada’s most iconic military victory and a symbol of national pride and awareness

Unit Review

1.What year did World War 1 begin

a) 1915

b) 1914

c) 1912

d) 1913

2.On what day did WW1 end?

a) Nov 11, 1918

b) Nov 10, 1919

c) Nov 10, 1918

d) Nov 11, 1919

3.Which country was NOT a member of the Triple Alliance at the BEGINNING of the war?

a) Austria-Hungary

b) Germany

c) Spain

d) Italy

4.Which country was NOT a member of the Triple Entente?

a) Russia

b) United States

c) France

d) Britian

5.What region in southern Europe was extremely volatile due to nationalist feelings?

a) The Alps

b) The Caucuses

c) The Balkans

d) The Algraves

6.Goals and objectives that nations seek to achieve are regarded as...

a) Domestic Affairs

b) Domestic Policy

c) National Agendas

d) National Interests

7. This document recommended the unification of Upper and Lower Canada, through a new Responsible Government.

a) The Durham Report

b ) The Charlotte Town Accord

c) The British North America Act

d) The Meech Lake Accord

8. Foreign Policy refers to...

a) How nations interact with individual nations within their own borders

b) How nations operate within their own borders

c) How nations interact with other nations

9. The FLQ Crisis was...

a) When a group of Quebecois sovereigntists caused riots and kidnappings in Canada.

b) When Canada introduced conscription during WW1

c) When a Mohawk Tribe protested the building of a golf course on their traditional lands.

d) When the United States attempted to invade Canada from the south

10. What is the name of the policy that placed a cap on the price on Albertan Oil in the 1980s?

a) New Energy Program

b) National Economic Policy

c) National Energy Program

d) New Economic Plan

11. Which of the following was NOT a cause of WW1?

a) Great Depression

b) Nationalism

c) Alliances

d) Militarism

12. Why was Germany so nationalistic leading into WW1?

a) Germany wanted to expand its empire

b) The sought the power and respect of other European nations

c) They were a newly unified nation

d) All of the above

13.Which of the following sets of information is correct?

a) Gavrilo Princip assassinated Franz Ferdinand in Vienna

b) Gravrilo Princip assassinated Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo

c) Franz Ferdinand assassinated Gavrilo Princip in Vienna

d) Franz Ferdinand assassinated Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo

14. Which nation left the Central Powers to join the Allied Forces during WW1?

a) None of the Above

b) Bulgaria

c) Austria-Hungary

d) Italy

15.Which of the following was NOT a term of the Treaty of Versailles?

a) Czechoslovakia and Germany could never unify

b) Germany's army could not exceed 100,000 men

c) Germany was solely responsible for WW1

d) Germany lost all overseas colonies

16. Which treaty ended Russia's participation in WW1?

a) The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

b) The Treaty of Versailles

c) The Treaty of London

d) The Treaty of Paris

17. Which of the following was a reason that the Schlieffen Plan failed?

a) The plan was outdated

b) All of the above

c) Germany attempted to invade Russia in the winter

d) France mobilized its troops faster than Germany anticipated

18. Select BOTH events that led to the American's entering WW1

a) The sinking of the Lusitania

b) German U-boats were spotted in American waters

c) The Zimmerman Telegram

d) Germany invaded Belgium

19. This battle is largely attributed to the creation of the Canadian National Identity.

a) Somme

b) Gallipoli

c) Verdun

d) Vimy Ridge

20. This event caused Russia to exit WW1 early than they have planned.

a) Germany captured the city of Moscow

b) France surrendered and ended the Russian obligated to fight in the war.

c)The Holodomor began in Russia

d) The Communist Revolution

21. Which USA President in responsible for creating the League of Nations?

a) Woodrow Wilson

b) Jimmy Carter

c) Franklin Roosevelt

d) Theodore Roosevelt

22. What was the main purpose of Wilson's 14 points?

a) Create an internal trade pact for all nations

b) Ensure long lasting world peace

c) To ensure American independence from foreign threats

d) The create a military alliance that could defeat Germany in WW1

23. Which major super power did not join the League of Nations?

a) The United States

b) Great Britain

c) Germany

d) France

24.

What propaganda technique is being used in the image?

a) Plain Folks

b) Name Calling

c) Glittering Generalities

d) Card Stacking

25.

What propaganda technique is being used in the image?

a) Name Calling

b) Testimonials

c) Bandwagoning

d) Card Stacking

Answer Keys

1.b) 1914

2. a) Nov 11, 1918

3. c) Spain

4. b) United States

5. c) The Balkans

6. d) National Interests

7. a) The Durham Report

8. c) How nations interact with other nations

9. a) When a group of Quebecois sovereigntists caused riots and kidnappings in Canada.

10. d) New Economic Plan

11. a) Great Depression

12. d) All of the above

13. b) Gravrilo Princip assassinated Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo

14. d) Italy

15. a) Czechoslovakia and Germany could never unify

16. a) The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

17. a) The plan was outdated

18. a) The sinking of the Lusitania, , c) The Zimmerman Telegram

19. d) Vimy Ridge

20. d) The Communist Revolution

21. a) Woodrow Wilson

22. b) Ensure long lasting world peace

23. a) The United States

24. b) Name Calling

25. c) Bandwagoning