Chapter 4: Emile Durkheim's Sociological Theories

INTRODUCTION

• Social facts (social institutions, norms, and values) and individualism

• Solidarity and cohesion (hold society together)

• Mechanical and organic solidarity (division of labor)

• Study of suicide (why do people commit suicide?)

• Religion (sacred and profane)

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

• His theory focuses on social facts (social institutions, norms, and values).

• Serves as the basis of functional theory.

• Society is a whole unit made up of interrelated parts that work together to create a state of balance, social solidarity (cohesion and order).

FUNCTIONALIST THEORY

• Each aspect of society depends on each other and contributes to the overall stability and functioning of society.

• Key components include:

  • Government

  • Economy

  • Education

  • Family

  • Media

  • Religion

FUNCTIONALISM

• Central idea of functionalism:

  • Society is stable as a whole unit made up of interrelated parts.

  • When all parts of society fulfill their functions, the society is in a normal state.

  • If they do not fulfill these functions, society is in an abnormal state.

• The functionalist framework emphasizes cohesion and order.

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

• Durkheim’s theory posits that the rise and fall of societies relates to the loss of social solidarity and social cohesion, leading to social breakdown.

• Example: Durkheim explains levels of suicide in society as a reflection of social breakdown (social facts vs. individualism).

SOCIAL FACTS VS. INDIVIDUALISM

• Two main themes in Durkheim's work:

  • Priority of social facts (external to individuals) over the individual.

  • Society or social factors can be studied scientifically through observation.

• Social facts consist of rules, norms, values, and social structures that exist outside of individuals but shape attitudes.

• Common perspective:

  • Society attributes everything to individuals, even social problems (e.g., racism, pollution, economic recessions).

  • Durkheim stresses the social dimension of all human phenomena.

DIVISION OF LABOR IN SOCIETY

• The rise of the Division of Labor: Modern society is unified not by similarities but through dependency and the division of labor.

• Greater resources in society lead to differentiation in tasks, fostering interdependence among individuals.

TYPES OF SOLIDARITY

• Durkheim identified two types of solidarity:

  • Mechanical Solidarity:

  • Unified by generalists (people engaged in similar activities) with similar responsibilities.

  • Organic Solidarity:

  • Holds society together through differences, with individuals performing diverse tasks and responsibilities.

• In primitive societies: stronger collective conscience with shared understandings, norms, and beliefs.

• Increased division of labor diminishes collective conscience in organic solidarity, where it's of lesser significance compared to mechanical solidarity.

• People in modern societies rely more on division of labor for cohesion than on collective conscience.

COHESION IN ORGANIC SOCIETIES

• Cohesion/solidarity shifts in organic societies; the collective consciousness allows for more individual differences.

DURKHEIM AND DIVISION OF LABOR

SOCIAL FACTS AND INDIVIDUAL ACTION

Questions for Reflection

• What does Durkheim mean when he says social facts are “external” to the individual?

• Are laws stronger social facts than cultural norms? Why or why not?

DURKHEIM’S SUICIDE AS A SOCIAL FACT

• Durkheim’s work "Suicide" is foundational for sociology, demonstrating that what is perceived as an individual act is actually socially patterned.

• Suicide has social, not solely psychological or biological causes.

• Psychological or biological factors explain individual actions, but group behaviors are reflective of social facts.

• Suicide is viewed as a symptom of collective breakdown in society.

FOUR TYPES OF SUICIDES

• Relation between types of suicide and two underlying social factors:

  • Social Integration: Strength of individual attachment to society.

  • Social Regulation: Degree of external rules and norms on individuals.

EGOISTIC SUICIDE

• Characteristics:

  • Detachment from society due to weak social integration.

  • Leads to feelings of meaninglessness and depression.

  • Significant loss of social bonds (e.g., retirement, loss of family/friends) increases likelihood of egoistic suicide.

  • Vulnerability to suicide increases with feelings of absence from society's hurts.

  • Vulnerable populations include the elderly and students.

ALTRUISTIC SUICIDE

• Occurs when social integration is too strong.

• The individual is compelled to commit suicide.

• Example: Mass suicide of Jim Jones's followers in Jonestown, 1978.

• Other examples include suicidal acts of martyrs or individuals sacrificing themselves for a perceived greater good (e.g., 9/11 attacks, Japanese kamikaze pilots).

• Involves actions taken due to duty to a cause, such as ritual suicides (e.g., Sati in India).

ANOMIC SUICIDE

• Likely occurs when societal regulations are disrupted.

• Positive or negative disruptions can leave individuals dissatisfied and disconnected.

• Example: Factory closures during economic depression, leading to job loss and lack of social structure (family, religion, state), increasing vulnerability to suicide.

FATALISTIC SUICIDE

• Opposite of anomic suicide, occurring under excessive regulation and oppression.

• Example: Individuals wanting to die to escape abusive prison conditions.

• High regulation correlates with increased rates of fatalistic suicide.

DURKHEIM’S THEORY OF SUICIDE

Question for Reflection

• Define Durkheim’s four types of suicide.

• Explain why an individual suicide cannot be explained using Durkheim’s theory.

Answer

• Durkheim's types cannot explain individual suicides since social facts cannot be observed in isolated actions.

• Psychological explanations are insufficient as they ignore the influence of social facts.

THEORY OF RELIGION

• Functionalist perspective emphasizes the social role of religion in holding society together.

• Religion acts as a source of solidarity and morality within society.

• Worship in religion is considered as worshipping society rather than a deity.

• Society influences social action and creates solidarity through religion.

• Religious ceremonies reinforce individual collective conscience.

• The universality of religion: over two billion Christians and Muslims globally.

RELIGION PROVIDING SOCIAL SOLIDARITY

• In "The Elementary Forms of Religious Life," Durkheim discusses the sacred (transcending the ordinary) and the profane (daily routines).

• He argues that religious rituals reinforce social bonds and collective conscience, ensuring social cohesion and solidarity.

• Expressed through totemic religions, especially among Aboriginal societies, where the totem signifies respect for society.

SACRED AND PROFANE

• Sacredness involves extraordinary and supernatural elements, often represented through rituals and symbols (e.g., houses of worship).

• Profane encompasses the ordinary routines (e.g., daily life tasks).

• The sacred-profane distinction is crucial to understanding the social reality and human religion, with no mention of God in Durkheim's definitions.

EMOTIONAL DIMENSION OF SACREDNESS

• Sacredness derives not merely from the object or ritual but from its symbolic power and the emotions experienced by individuals when interacting with the sacred.

PERSONAL REFLECTION ON RELIGION

Question for Reflection

• How does your personal experience with religion align or differ from Durkheim’s analysis?

• Do you perceive religion primarily as a social phenomenon or an individual spiritual journey?

RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION IN THE UNITED STATES AND WORLDWIDE (2016)

• Statistics:

  • 2% Muslim

  • 2% Jewish

  • 8% None

  • 27% Catholic

  • 1% Latter Day Saints (Mormon)

  • 5% Other

  • 9% other not specified

  • 6% 33% Christianity

  • 13% Buddhism

  • 19% None

  • 20% Islam

RELIGIOSITY IN THE UNITED STATES (1952-2013)

• Graph illustrating societal levels of religiosity over decades, showing trends of decline.

MAJOR RELIGIOUS GROUPS (2010/2050)

• Global population data and projections for major religious groups, showing potential demographic changes.

PROJECTED CHANGE IN GLOBAL POPULATION (2010/2050)

• Data by Pew Research Center on the estimated growth of religious populations.

READINGS

• Recommended readings for further understanding the concepts, including materials related to Durkheim’s division of labor and social change in historical contexts.

References provided in the original text, including links to external resources.