Research Methodologies in Psychology

Types of Research in Psychology

Introduction to Research Design

  • Psychologists design studies to test hypotheses using various methods.

  • The chapter outlines strengths and weaknesses of four common research methods:

    • Archival studies

    • Naturalistic observation

    • Surveys

    • Experiments

  • Important for students to consider whether the chosen methodology was appropriate for the research question.

  • Two broad types of research design are introduced: quantitative and qualitative.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

  • Qualitative Research:

    • Typically conducted using surveys or interviews with results presented in non-numerical form.

    • Researchers identify patterns and themes across responses.

    • Advantages:

    • Respects participants' voices and personal experiences.

    • Provides deeper insights into individual lives.

    • Disadvantages:

    • Results generally cannot be analyzed statistically.

  • Quantitative Research:

    • Involves data in numerical form, suitable for mathematical and statistical analyses.

Archival Studies

  • Definition: Analysis of existing materials that were gathered for other purposes.

  • Advantages:

    • Data sources already exist and can often be accessed for free.

  • Disadvantages:

    • Limited control over information available.

Examples of Archival Studies

  • Study by Park et al. (2016) examined gender differences in Facebook postings:

    • Women focused on social relationships; men focused on activities and objects.

  • Study by Carlyle and Patten (2013) examined political posts among college students:

    • Political posts increased closer to elections; having more online friends correlated with fewer political posts.

    • Raises questions about the potential discouragement of political expression in individuals with many friends.

Naturalistic Observation

  • Definition: Observing people in their natural environments without their knowledge and recording behaviors systematically.

  • Examples of what can be observed: littering, shopping behaviors, ATM transaction times.

Naturalistic Observation Studies

  • Study by Kwok et al. (2015) observed medical students' face touching behaviors pre and post-COVID pandemic.

    • Students touched their faces an average of 23 times per hour, 44% to mucous membrane areas.

  • Study by Franz (2014) on "fubbing" (phone snubbing):

    • Observed couples at farmers' markets; categorized responses to fubbing as:

    1. Indifference

    2. Collaboration

    3. Assertiveness

    • Found gender differences in responses.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation

  • Advantages:

    • Provides authentic insights into natural behaviors.

  • Disadvantages:

    • Ethical concerns about observing without consent.

    • Reactivity, where participants alter behavior if aware of being observed.

  • Solution: Participant observation allows researchers to join the environment, like spies.

Surveys

  • Definition: Collecting information through direct questions to participants.

  • Advantages:

    • Efficient data collection, especially if survey format is convenient and incentivized.

  • Example Study: Barry et al. (2017) examined if selfie posting is linked to narcissism:

    • Surveyed college students on self-perceptions of narcissism; analyzed Instagram imagery.

    • Results indicated different selfie posting behaviors linked to grandiose vs. vulnerable narcissism.

Disadvantages of Surveys

  • Participants may not respond truthfully due to social desirability bias.

  • Researchers may use liar scales to detect discrepancies in honesty.

Experiments

  • Definition: Research designs comparing two or more groups to determine differences caused by manipulated variables.

  • Two types of experiments: quasi-experiments and true experiments.

Quasi-experiments

  • Definition: Compare pre-existing groups without random assignment.

  • Example Study: Children's ability to identify fake news (Dimitru, 2020) using samples from The Netherlands and Romania.

  • Disadvantages:

    • Association between response differences and unidentified variables (culture, media exposure, etc.).

True Experiments

  • Definition: Random assignment to conditions ensures equivalent groups at study start.

  • Example Study: Social media evaluation experiment (Theunis & Scouten, 2011).

    • Examined profile variables affecting student ratings of attractiveness.

  • Design Types:

    • Between-Participants Design: Different groups for different conditions.

    • Within-Participants Design: Same group experiences all conditions.

Experimental Groups and Variables

  • Control Group: Baseline or neutral group (e.g., placebo).

  • Experimental Group: Receives treatment or intervention (e.g., drug group).

  • Independent Variable: The manipulated variable hypothesized to influence outcomes.

    • Example: In drug trials, the independent variable is drug vs. placebo.

  • Dependent Variable: The outcome measurement expected to change in response to the independent variable.

    • Example: Effectiveness of a drug based on symptoms reported.

  • Confounding Variables: Alternative explanations for outcomes that must be controlled to maintain experiment integrity.

  • True experiments limit confounding variables, making them preferred for cause-effect conclusions.