Exam 1 Study Guide_Sp24 - Tagged

GEOL 125 Exam 1 Study Guide – Spring 2024

General Information

• Exam Coverage: Chapters 1-6, including textbook readings and PowerPoints.

• Study Guidance: Merely reading this guide is inadequate for passing. Consult past lectures, discuss topics, and focus on outlined areas for effective preparation.

I. Environmental Science and Sustainability: Key Concepts

A. Introduction

• Impact of Human Choices: Choices (such as food, clothing, transportation) significantly influence the environment.

• Role of Environmental Scientists: They analyze how human activities change and affect the environment.

• Scientific Inquiry: Investigates environmental impacts and formulates solutions for sustainable practices.

• Beyond Science: Sustainability requires a multidisciplinary approach encompassing economics, ethics, and politics.

B. Definitions and Ecosystems

• **Key Definitions:

  • Environment**: All external factors affecting living beings.

  • Ecosystem: A community of organisms and their environment.

  • Ecosystem Services: Benefits humans derive from ecosystems.

• Human Impact: The Anthropocene Epoch signifies human-induced environmental changes.

• Transformation of Landscapes: Agricultural and urban developments have replaced natural habitats.

C. Sustainability

• Definition: Meeting present needs without compromising future generations.

• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): UN’s 17 goals addressing environmental, economic, and equity issues.

  • Indicator Examples: Pollution levels, protected areas.

  • ECONOMY, EQUITY, ENVIRONMENT (3Es): Core elements of sustainability planning.

• Ecological Resilience: The capacity of an ecosystem to recover from stress or disruption.

  • Examples: Flood planning, wetland preservation to mitigate climate impacts.

D. What Is Science?

1. Scientific Method: A systematic approach to inquiry involving hypothesis generation, testing, and evaluation.

2. Observation Types:

   • Controlled experiments with test and control groups.

   • Observational studies to gather data without manipulation.

   • Use of models for simulation and predictions.

E. Challenges to Good Science

• Issues such as fraud, bias, misinformation, and the significance of peer review in maintaining scientific integrity.

F. Decision Makers’ Influences

• Factors Affecting Environmental Decisions: Values, biases, social pressures, trade-offs.

• Incentives: Positive (rewards for good actions) and negative (penalties for bad behaviors).

• Footprint Analysis: Highlights the environmental impact of nations, distinguishing between total and per capita footprints.

II. Ethics, Economics, and Policy

A. Ethics

• Definitions: Study of right and wrong.

• Deontological vs. Utilitarianism: Understanding obligations vs. maximizing benefits for the majority.

  • Deontological Ethics: Focuses on duties and rights.

  • Utilitarianism: Focus on outcomes and their benefits.

B. Environmental Economics

• Goods and Services: Economic system influences environmental choices.

• Supply and Demand: Market forces determine pricing; governmental interventions can alter this dynamic.

  • Market Economies: Limited government involvement (e.g., US)

  • Command Economies: Heavy government supervision (e.g., North Korea).

• Scarcity and Innovation: Drives price increases and efficiency.

• Externalities: Unintended impacts of economic activities; cap-and-trade systems manage negative externalities, e.g., carbon emissions.

• Tragedy of the Commons: Overuse of shared resources leading to environmental degradation.

C. Environmental Policies

• Policy Mechanics: In the US, policies regulate resources and pollution (e.g., Clean Air Act).

• Global Issues: The UN's slow response to international environmental challenges.

III. Matter and Energy: Sustainability Building Blocks

A. Matter

1. Definition and Structure of Atoms: Nucleus (protons and neutrons), electrons.

2. Elements and Ions: Fundamental identities of matter.

3. Isotopes and Chemical Bonds: Understanding ionic, covalent, metallic, and hydrogen bonds.

4. Conservation of Mass: Mass remains constant in closed systems.

5. Acids, Bases, and Chemical Reactions: Processes such as oxidation-reduction (redox).

B. Energy

1. Definition: Ability to perform work.

2. Types of Energy: Kinetic, potential, thermal, etc.

3. Laws of Thermodynamics: Energy conserves in transformations with inevitable entropy increases, implying no process is 100% efficient.

4. Ecosystem Energy Flow: Trophic levels indicate energy loss between levels (90% loss occurrence).

IV. Life: Biodiversity Dynamics

A. Biodiversity Levels

• Life Studies: From cells to biosphere levels.

• Evolutionary Mechanisms: Mutation, selection, gene transfer.

B. Speciation and Genetic Diversity

• Importance of genetic diversity for species survival and potential extinction risk.

C. Biodiversity Metrics

• Species Richness and Evenness: Identifying regions and factors contributing to high biodiversity.

• Biomes Overview: Characteristics and climates of ecosystems. Convergence leads to similar traits in unrelated species in analogous environments.

D. Species Interactions

• Competition and Predation Types: Includes intraspecific competition and symbiotic relationships (mutualism, commensalism, parasitism).

E. Population Dynamics

1. Growth Rates and Carrying Capacity: Population growth strategies, predator-prey dynamics.

2. Reproductive Strategies: R-strategists vs. K-strategists.

V. Conservation: Importance of Protecting Biodiversity

A. Status of Biodiversity

• Extinction Rates: Current rates are alarming and among the highest.

B. Reasons for Conservation

1. Instrumental vs. Intrinsic Value: Economic worth vs. inherent worth in biodiversity.

2. Ecosystem Services: Categories include provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services.

C. Mechanisms for Protecting Biodiversity

1. Government Policies: National parks, wildlife refuges, international agreements like CITES.

2. Challenges in Protected Areas: Include ecological isolation, matching conservation priorities, and enforcement issues.

VI. Human Population: Growth Concerns

A. Historical Perspective

• Population trends influenced by agriculture and technological advances.

B. Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

• Crucial for understanding population stability and changes.

C. Demographic Transition Theory

• Stages from high birth/death rates to low and balanced rates with societal changes.

D. Population Distributions

• Understanding impacts of age distribution on economy and social structures.

E. Earth’s Capacity for Population Support

1. Predictions vs. Reality: Advances in sustainability mitigate fears of resource scarcity.

2. Impact Calculation: I = PAT formula for understanding resource use.

F. Population Control Strategies

• Laws, incentives, social norms, and ethical considerations in population management.

GEOL 125 Exam 1 Study Guide – Spring 2024

General Information

• Exam Coverage: Chapters 1-6, covering all relevant textbook readings and PowerPoints.

• Study Guidance: Merely reading this guide is inadequate for passing. Students should engage with past lectures, actively discuss topics, and focus on outlined areas to achieve effective and thorough preparation. Active learning is essential.

I. Environmental Science and Sustainability: Key Concepts

A. Introduction

• Impact of Human Choices: Daily choices (such as food, clothing, and transportation) have profound impacts on environmental health. Understanding the environmental footprint of these choices can lead to more sustainable living.

• Role of Environmental Scientists: These professionals analyze how human activities alter ecosystems, looking to mitigate negative impacts through research and practical interventions.

• Scientific Inquiry: This involves critical examination and investigation of environmental impacts, leading to innovative solutions for sustainable practices aimed at preserving ecological balance.

• Beyond Science: Sustainability is inherently multidisciplinary, requiring integration of knowledge from economics, ethics, and politics to develop effective solutions.

B. Definitions and Ecosystems

• Key Definitions:

  • Environment: Encompasses all external factors influencing living organisms, including physical, chemical, and biological aspects.

  • Ecosystem: A self-regulating community of organisms interacting with their physical environment, characterized by nutrient cycling and energy flow.

  • Ecosystem Services: The array of benefits provided to humans by ecosystems, including provisioning (food, water), regulating (climate, floods), supporting (nutrient cycling), and cultural services (recreational, aesthetic values).

  • Human Impact: The Anthropocene Epoch represents significant human influence on the Earth’s geology and ecosystems, leading to biodiversity loss and climate change.

  • Transformation of Landscapes: Human developments, particularly through agriculture and urbanization, have caused substantial loss of biodiversity and habitat destruction.

C. Sustainability

• Definition: Sustainability entails fulfilling present needs while ensuring that future generations can meet their own needs, advocating for a balance between economic, social, and environmental goals.

• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): The 17 goals established by the UN serve as a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all by 2030, addressing interconnected global challenges.

• ECONOMY, EQUITY, ENVIRONMENT (3Es): These are the core elements considered in sustainability planning, emphasizing their interdependence for a balanced approach to development.

• Ecological Resilience: Refers to the ability of an ecosystem to recover from disturbances (e.g., natural disasters, human impacts), affecting its productivity and diversity. Examples include flood planning and wetland preservation that enhance natural defenses against climate change.

D. What Is Science?

• Scientific Method: A rigorous, systematic approach involving hypothesis formulation, testing through controlled experiments, and ongoing evaluation of results.

• Observation Types:

  • Controlled Experiments: Use test and control groups to determine causal relationships.

  • Observational Studies: Collect data in natural settings without manipulation.

  • Models: Simulate ecosystems and predict interactions, crucial for understanding complex environmental systems.

E. Challenges to Good Science

• Issues: Dangers including scientific fraud, bias, and misinformation can undermine research credibility. Peer review processes are critical in upholding scientific integrity by validating research before publication.

F. Decision Makers’ Influences

• Factors Affecting Environmental Decisions: Decision-making is impacted by values, biases, social pressures, and the need to consider trade-offs.

• Incentives: Include positive rewards for environmentally beneficial actions and negative penalties for harmful practices.

• Footprint Analysis: Tools that help to visualize the environmental impact of individuals or nations, comparing total and per capita footprints for effectiveness in sustainability efforts.

II. Ethics, Economics, and Policy

A. Ethics

• Definitions: The field concerning the study of right and wrong actions.

• Deontological vs. Utilitarianism: Differentiates obligation-focused ethics from outcome-focused ethics aimed at maximizing overall benefits to the majority.

• Deontological Ethics: Prioritizes duties, rules, and rights in decision-making.

• Utilitarianism: In contrast, evaluates the morality of actions based on their outcomes and the well-being they generate.

B. Environmental Economics

• Goods and Services: The economic system significantly shapes environmental choices and behaviors.

• Supply and Demand: Core economic principles that determine the pricing of goods; government interventions (e.g., taxes, subsidies) can alter natural market behaviors.

• Market Economies: Characterized by limited government involvement (e.g., the US), motivating efficiency and innovation.

• Command Economies: Characterized by heavy government supervision, as seen in more centrally planned economies (e.g., North Korea).

• Scarcity and Innovation: As resources become limited, innovation drives price increases and enhances efficiency in resource use.

• Externalities: Unintended consequences of economic activities that impact third parties; policies like cap-and-trade are used to manage negative externalities effectively (e.g., carbon emissions).

• Tragedy of the Commons: A theory explaining how individuals acting independently according to their own self-interest can ultimately deplete shared resources, leading to environmental degradation.

C. Environmental Policies

• Policy Mechanics: In the US, environmental policies are crafted to regulate resource utilization and manage pollution sources (e.g., Clean Air Act that enforces air quality standards).

• Global Issues: International environmental challenges often suffer from slow and inadequate responses from entities like the UN, highlighting the need for more proactive strategies.

III. Matter and Energy: Sustainability Building Blocks

A. Matter

• Definition and Structure of Atoms: Atoms consist of a nucleus (containing protons and neutrons) surrounded by electrons.

• Elements and Ions: Foundation of matter represented by elements in the periodic table, and ions being charged species resulting from electron transfer.

• Isotopes and Chemical Bonds: Variability in atomic forms and understanding the nature of bonds (ionic, covalent, metallic, hydrogen) crucial for chemical interactions.

• Conservation of Mass: This principle states that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a closed system, which is foundational for chemical reactions.

• Acids, Bases, and Chemical Reactions: Examines ionization processes and the significance of oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions in both biological and ecological systems.

B. Energy

• Definition: Energy is defined as the capacity to perform work, present in various forms.

• Types of Energy: Different forms include kinetic (motion), potential (stored), thermal (heat), and more, each serving unique roles in environmental processes.

• Laws of Thermodynamics: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but only transformed; these transformations are associated with inevitable increases in entropy, indicating that no process is 100% efficient and energy is always lost to the environment.

• Ecosystem Energy Flow: Describes how energy moves through trophic levels in an ecosystem, with a significant energy loss (approximately 90%) occurring at each subsequent level, highlighting inefficiencies in energy transfer.

IV. Life: Biodiversity Dynamics

A. Biodiversity Levels

• Life Studies: Exploration ranges from the microscopic cellular level to broader biome interactions encompassing the biosphere.

• Evolutionary Mechanisms: Fundamental processes driving species adaptation and diversification include mutation, natural selection, and gene transfer.

B. Speciation and Genetic Diversity

• Importance: Genetic diversity is critical for species resilience, enabling adaptations to changing environments and reducing extinction risks.

C. Biodiversity Metrics

• Species Richness and Evenness: Tools for measuring biodiversity, helping in the identification of regions with high biodiversity value and understanding ecological health.

• Biomes Overview: Characteristics of different biomes are shaped by climate, geography, and ecological interactions; convergence of characteristics in unrelated species seen in analogous environments highlights selective pressures.

D. Species Interactions

• Competition and Predation Types: Different interactions (e.g., intraspecific competition, interspecific competition, predation) and their influences on population dynamics.

• Symbiotic Relationships: The diverse forms of symbiosis including mutualism (benefit both species), commensalism (one benefits while the other is unaffected), and parasitism (one benefits at the other's expense).

E. Population Dynamics

• Growth Rates and Carrying Capacity: Different strategies organisms use to grow, respond to limiting factors and how predator-prey relationships shape population structures.

• Reproductive Strategies: Distinguishes organisms based on life history traits into r-strategists (high reproduction rates) and K-strategists (lower rates but greater parental care).

V. Conservation: Importance of Protecting Biodiversity

A. Status of Biodiversity

• Extinction Rates: The current rates of species extinction are alarming, approaching the highest levels in history and indicating a global biodiversity crisis that necessitates immediate action.

B. Reasons for Conservation

• Instrumental vs. Intrinsic Value: Differentiates between the economic worth attributed to biodiversity (instrumental) and its inherent value (intrinsic), essential for philosophical and policy discussions.

• Ecosystem Services: Recognition of the various categories of ecosystem services underscores their importance in human survival and prosperity.

C. Mechanisms for Protecting Biodiversity

• Government Policies: Policies aimed at conserving ecosystems include the establishment of national parks, wildlife refuges, and international agreements such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).

• Challenges in Protected Areas: Include issues of ecological isolation, socio-political conflicts, discrepancies in conservation priorities, and enforcement challenges that hinder effective protection efforts.

VI. Human Population: Growth Concerns

A. Historical Perspective

• Population Trends: Historical changes in population dynamics closely linked to agricultural revolutions and technological advancements that have influenced human carrying capacity.

B. Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

• Importance: This statistic is crucial for understanding population stability, demographic trends, and predicting future population changes.

C. Demographic Transition Theory

• Stages: Outlines the progression from high birth and death rates to low and balanced rates as societies develop economically and socially.

D. Population Distributions

• Impacts of Age Distribution: Understanding the implications of age structures on economies and social dynamics, influencing everything from labor markets to healthcare needs.

E. Earth’s Capacity for Population Support

• Predictions vs. Reality: Advances in technology and sustainable practices have reassured that fears of resource scarcity can be mitigated through innovation and effective resource management.

• Impact Calculation: Using the I = PAT formula (Impact = Population x Affluence x Technology) to assess and understand the interplay between these factors in resource use and environmental impact.

F. Population Control Strategies

• Methods: Including legal measures, incentives, social norms, and ethical considerations, all playing roles in the management of population growth and sustainable development.