Environmentalism and Environmental Movements Notes

Environmentalism and Environmental Movements

Introduction

The lecture begins with examples of environmental activism from around the world, illustrating the diverse nature of environmental movements.

• Lobbyists working to protect the spotted owl.
• Priests opposing transnational mining companies.
• Aboriginal people and green activists lobbying for World Heritage status.
• Activists impeding road construction.
• Protestors halting nuclear waste transport.
• NGOs working to save Bengali tigers.
• Catholics and Protestants campaigning against motorway construction.
• Activists challenging parliamentary norms.
• Indigenous peoples protesting dam construction.

These examples highlight the global reach and varied concerns of environmental movements.

Global South – Global North

The terms 'Global South' and 'Global North' gained popularity in the 1970s to differentiate between industrialized and wealthier countries ('the north') and non-industrialized and poorer countries ('the south'). The terminology helps to identify common socio-economic and political features and power dynamics between these regions.

Environmentalism: A Brief History

Early Concerns

Concerns about human-induced environmental changes can be traced back to early European merchant capitalism around the 14th century. Ecological degradation on islands (colonies) led to forest-protection legislation in the 17th and 18th centuries. This protection was often motivated by economic interests or specific social constructions of nature.

Forest Protection

Forest-protection legislation became common in colonized islands such as Mauritius, St Helena, Tobago, and Dominica. The rationale behind this legislation was often rooted in economic interests and the social perception of nature.

Deforestation and Climate

The link between deforestation and climate change was further explored by A. Von Humboldt and J. Boussingault, who advocated for large-scale state intervention. This led to the establishment of the first forest department in India and forest reserves in 1864, serving as a model for other large-scale land-use reservations globally, including national parks and game reserves. Motivations were both economic and aesthetic.

Shift to Modern Environmentalism

Post-World War II, conservationist environmentalism evolved into modern environmentalism, focusing on pollution, health, and work safety. The concept of the 'environment' as related to nature is a recent and politicized term with two main interpretations:

1. Environment as a natural ecosystem requiring protection.
2. Environment as a living space for humans requiring management, preservation, and sustainability.

Examples of Modern Environmentalism

Modern environmentalism is exemplified by figures like David Attenborough advocating for climate action, environmentalists opposing pipeline construction, and activists like Wangari Maathai, Greta Thunberg and indigenous leaders fighting against environmental destruction. Numerous environmental activists have been killed for defending the planet.

Environmentalism - Definition

Environmentalism is defined as the ways in which relationships between people and their environment are understood and acted upon. These relationships are dynamic and have evolved throughout history. Early studies identified anthropocentric, deterministic, and co-evolutionary environmentalisms. Recent decades have seen a shift towards co-evolutionary environmentalisms, such as political ecology, eco-feminism, and environmental justice.

Environmentalisms

Environmentalists are generally people who believe environmental problems are real and require action. However, there are different types of action and varying interests among environmentalists from wealthy and poor countries. Martinez-Alier (2002) identifies three main political strands:

1. The cult of wilderness
2. The gospel of eco-efficiency
3. Environmentalism of the poor

‘Cult of Wilderness’

This involves environmentalist groups focused on preserving portions of nature, aiming to save nature from economic growth. It is based on the idea of nature as separate from society, needing to be kept wild or untouched. This approach supports conservation campaigns and education but may overlook social issues, carry colonial undertones in the Global South, and prioritize nature over Indigenous communities’ rights.

‘Gospel of Eco-Efficiency’

These movements do not oppose economic growth, provided it is sustainable, with technology and science playing a key role. The emergence of sustainable development as a global policy has empowered these movements. This approach contributes to better management of natural resources and waste, considering ecological limits, but may take a utilitarian view of nature and disregard social inequalities.

‘Environmentalism of the Poor’

These movements identify economic growth as a driver of environmental issues in an increasingly uneven world. They often involve Indigenous communities, minorities, and overlooked communities fighting against environmental destruction that threatens their livelihoods. This approach targets structural conditions such as racism, extractivism, colonialism, and economic inequality, but faces violent reactions due to challenging powerful structures.

Other Environmentalisms

According to Armiero (2018), there are political stances beyond Martinez-Alier’s classification, including eco-modernist movements, deep ecology and Gaia movements, and eco-feminism. Social movements can be influenced by multiple stances. For example, Greenpeace initially rooted in the 'cult of wilderness' has shifted towards 'eco-efficiency' and 'environmentalism of the poor' in different contexts.

Arenas of Environmental Activism

O'Neil (2012) maps arenas of environmental activism:

1. Wilderness and species preservation (biodiversity conservation, parks movements, deep ecology).
2. Access to and use of natural resources (land, forests, water, property rights, food security, community-based conservation).
3. Responding to industrial and technological risks (pollution, mining, large-scale construction, waste disposal, nuclear power, GMOs, climate change).
4. Communitarian green movements (critiques of capitalism, promotion of alternative lifestyles and economic systems).

Environmental Movements

Environmental movements are defined as loose, non-institutionalized networks engaged in collective action motivated by shared identity or concern about environmental issues (Rootes, 2004). Objectives include preserving natural resources, preventing pollution, controlling land use for conservation, and ensuring access to natural spaces. These movements can manifest as political parties, interconnected NGOs, international lending organizations, legal support firms, green corporations, and consumer groups.

Characteristics of Environmental Movements

These movements are heterogeneous, rooted in critiques of nature and labor commodification, religious and aesthetic thought, scientific knowledge, and the search for nature’s purity. Their stance on economic growth depends on their political view of nature. Environmental movements utilize various tactics such as protests, demonstrations, electoral campaigns, social media activism, and craftivism. Despite being a global movement, they have particularities based on regional and local contexts.

Emergence of Environmental Movements

Environmental movements in the Global North emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s, while those in the Global South emerged forcefully in the late 1970s and 1980s. Global South movements often focus on human health, shelter, food security, and survival, whereas Global North movements often fight for wilderness issues and their vision of 'nature'.

Case Studies

Case Study GS: Fog Oases Defenders

Fog oases, seasonal ecosystems in the hills around Lima, Peru, are threatened by climate change, land-use changes, and illegal occupation. Local people organized to promote eco-tourism as a low-impact activity. Their activities clashed with land-traffickers, leading them to attract NGOs, academics, public authorities, and private companies, turning eco-tourism into a political strategy. These movements demonstrated care for the fog oases and targeted structural conditions such as corruption and weak governance, reflecting 'environmentalism of the poor'. This contributed to creating regional conservation areas.

Case Study GN: WA’s Native Forests

Western Australia's native forests have been exploited by the timber industry since the early 19th century. In the mid-1970s, local activists organized to oppose increasing pressure on forests. Non-violent actions in the 1990s led to the preservation of 230,000 ha of old-growth forest. Later campaigns focused on sustainable solutions to logging, retaining native trees, and investing in softwood timber plantations.

Socioenvironmental Conflicts

Socioenvironmental conflicts are social conflicts related to the environment. Apolitical arguments often cite scarcity as a key driver, while political ecology arguments emphasize ecological distribution. These conflicts often involve unfair distribution of environmental goods (clean water, fertile land) and bads (exposure to pollution, threats to health and livelihoods).

Land-Grabbing

Large-scale land acquisitions for agriculture, biofuels, and conservation often benefit national and local elites while displacing disempowered groups. Ineffective consultation mechanisms and deceiving contracts are common. Power structures are often related to former colonial relationships.

Case Study GS: Land-Grabbing and Violence

Environmental movement leaders face constant threats and intimidation. Global Witness reported 185 fatal attacks against environmentalists in 2015, mostly in the Global South. A pattern exists of selectively eliminating those who defend their land and people. Environmental movements and leaders are often defamed and criminalized, depicted as 'anti-development' or 'radicals'. Land-grabbing is also led by criminal organizations engaged in illegal mining, logging, and poaching.

Socioenvironmental Conflicts Related to Energy Transitions

The World Bank estimates that >3b tons of metals and minerals could be needed for the global energy transition over the next 30 years.

>3b

Mining of key metals and minerals becomes an important economic driver but also a potential trigger for socioenvironmental conflicts. Top-down policies promoting wind and solar farms can clash with residents' preferences.

Case Study GN: Friends of St Fittick’s Park

St Fittick’s Park in Scotland provides important green space for residents. Plans to designate much of the surrounding area as an 'Energy Transition Zone' threatened this space. Residents, aware of the need for greener energy, argued for a just transition requiring a better approach. They created a network with researchers, politicians, and NGOs to defend the green space.

Impact of Environmental Movements

Despite their increasing popularity, environmental movements have not halted the drivers of environmental degradation. They can mobilize public opinion and influence changes locally. More recently, they are expanding their networks and participating in global environmental summits.

Critical Reflections

Environmental movements in the Global South and Global North struggle to achieve their objectives. They are important actors in socioenvironmental conflicts but not necessarily powerful. They can have significant long-term effects on regional, national, and global policy.

Conclusions

Environmental movements in the Global South and Global North have common strategies but different challenges. They can encompass different political stances. Socioenvironmental conflicts emerge due to unequal ecological distribution of environmental goods and bads. Environmental movements can mobilize public opinion and advocate for better environmental policies.

Suggested Material

• Maxima (2019) – GS socioenvironmental conflict.
• A Life on Our Planet (2020) – GN environmental documentary.
• YouTube: “Environmental movements”.
• Books: "The Environmentalism of the Poor" by Martínez-Alier, and "Environmental Movements in Minority and Majority Worlds" by Doyle.