Chapter 15 Civil War
Civil War Study Guide (1860–1865)
I. Background and Causes of the Civil War
Election of 1860
Abraham Lincoln elected president. Southern leaders saw him as a threat because Republicans opposed the expansion of slavery.
Lincoln promised not to interfere with slavery in states where it already existed but opposed its spread to new territories.
Secession
Eleven Southern states seceded to protect slavery: South Carolina (Dec 20, 1860), Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina.
Four Upper South states seceded after Fort Sumter (VA, AR, TN, NC).
Border states (Delaware, Maryland, Missouri, Kentucky) remained loyal to the Union.
Failed Compromises
Crittenden Compromise: Tried to extend Missouri Compromise line (36°30′) to Pacific, protect slavery in existing states. Rejected by Republicans and South.
Underlying Causes
Slavery and its expansion (Missouri Compromise, Kansas-Nebraska Act, Bleeding Kansas).
Abolitionist movement (William Lloyd Garrison, John Brown).
Emergence of political parties opposing slavery expansion (Liberty, Free-Soil, Republican).
II. Early War (1861–1862)
Fort Sumter (April 12–14, 1861)
Confederate attack in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. Union surrendered, starting the war.
First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas) – July 21, 1861
Confederate victory shattered hope of a short war.
Union forces inexperienced; Confederate counterattack caused chaotic retreat.
Union Strengths
Population > 20 million, industry, railroads, food supply, navy.
Weaknesses: offensive war, long supply lines, hostile territory.
Confederate Strengths
Defensive war, familiar territory, support of civilians.
Weaknesses: smaller population (~9 million, including 4 million enslaved), weak industry, inflation.
Military Stalemate (1861–1862)
Both sides aimed to capture enemy capital (Richmond, VA for Union; Washington, DC for Confederacy).
Key Battles: Seven Days Battles (Jun–Jul 1862), Second Battle of Bull Run, Battle of Antietam (bloodiest day, 9/17/1862).
McClellan replaced by Ambrose Burnside (Fredericksburg) and then Joseph Hooker (Chancellorsville).
Western Theater
Union aimed to control Mississippi River and split Confederacy.
Battles: Shiloh (Apr 6–7, 1862, Union victory), New Orleans (Apr 1862), Memphis (Jun 1862).
III. Total War and Mobilization
Total War Concept
Armies attacked civilian and military resources. Governments mobilized industry, labor, and agriculture.
Confederate Mobilization
Draft (Apr 1862), wealthy could hire substitutes → class resentment.
Economic control: seized enslaved labor, controlled transportation, cotton exports collapsed.
Inflation and shortages caused bread riots (Richmond, Apr 1863).
Suspension of habeas corpus.
“King Cotton Diplomacy” failed; no foreign allies gained.
Union Mobilization
Expanded government power, taxed, issued bonds, printed greenbacks.
Passed key legislation: Homestead Act, Morrill Act, Pacific Railway Act, Legal Tender Act, National Bank Acts.
Draft (Enrollment Act, Mar 1863), substitutes allowed, African Americans excluded initially.
Women contributed: ran farms, sewed uniforms, served as nurses, spies, and soldiers.
IV. Emancipation and African Americans
Early War
Lincoln prioritized preserving the Union; feared losing border states.
Contrabands: escaped enslaved people protected by Union army (May 1861).
Key Legislation
Confiscation Acts (1861 & 1862), banned slavery in Washington, DC, and territories.
Emancipation Proclamation
Preliminary: Sep 22, 1862; Final: Jan 1, 1863.
Freed enslaved people in Confederate states still in rebellion.
Border states and Union-occupied areas exempt.
Shifted the war’s moral purpose, undermined Confederate labor, discouraged European support, paved way for 13th Amendment.
African American Soldiers
Over 190,000 served by 1865; 85% formerly enslaved.
54th Massachusetts Regiment: notable bravery at Fort Wagner.
Fort Pillow Massacre (Apr 1864): Black soldiers executed after surrender.
V. Turning Point Year – 1863
Gettysburg (Jul 1–3, 1863)
Largest battle in North America.
Pickett’s Charge failed.
Union casualties ~23,000; Confederate ~28,000.
Lee retreated; never again invaded North.
Vicksburg (Jul 3, 1863)
Union gained full control of Mississippi River, splitting Confederacy.
Gettysburg Address (Nov 19, 1863)
Lincoln reframed the war as a fight for democracy and equality.
Called for a “new birth of freedom” and honored fallen soldiers.
VI. 1864–1865 Campaigns
Grant vs. Lee in Virginia
Battle of the Wilderness (May 5–7, 1864): heavy casualties.
Spotsylvania (May 8–12, 1864): continued attrition.
Cold Harbor (Jun 3, 1864): major Union losses.
Siege of Petersburg: 9-month trench warfare.
Sherman’s Campaign
Atlanta fell Sep 2, 1864 → boosted Northern morale.
March to the Sea: Atlanta → Savannah (Dec 21, 1864).
Total war tactics: destroyed farms, railroads, crops; continued into South Carolina, burned Columbia.
Election of 1864
Lincoln vs. George B. McClellan.
Northern victories (Atlanta, Shenandoah Valley) ensured Lincoln’s reelection.
VII. End of the War (1865)
Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House (Apr 9, 1865).
Johnston surrendered in North Carolina (Apr 26, 1865).
War cost: 600,000+ soldiers killed, destruction of property, major social and economic upheaval.
Reconstruction would follow.
VIII. Key Concepts and Significance
Total War
A strategy targeting both civilian and military resources.
Civilian Contributions
Women: nurses, spies, homefront management.
African Americans: soldiers, laborers, contrabands.
Enduring Legacies
Gettysburg Address: democracy, equality, national unity.
Sherman’s March: example of total war and strategy.
Emancipation: moral shift and legal path to abolition.
Memorial Day: created to honor fallen soldiers.
IX. Timeline Highlights
1860: Lincoln elected → South secedes.
Apr 1861: Fort Sumter attacked → war begins.
Jul 1861: First Bull Run → Confederate victory.
1862: Shiloh, Seven Days Battles, Antietam, Union gains in Mississippi.
1863: Gettysburg, Vicksburg, Emancipation Proclamation, Gettysburg Address.
1864: Grant campaigns in Virginia; Sherman captures Atlanta → March to the Sea.
Nov 1864: Lincoln reelected.
Apr 1865: Lee surrenders → war ends.
Overview
In 1864, the Union launched a major military push in Virginia under General Ulysses S. Grant. The goal was to defeat Confederate General Robert E. Lee and capture Richmond, the Confederate capital, while also preventing Confederate forces from stopping Union advances elsewhere.
Important Dates
May 1864, Grant orders the Union Army of the Potomac to cross the Rapidan River.
May 5–6, 1864, Battle of the Wilderness.
June 1864, Battle of Cold Harbor.
1865, African Americans collect remains of fallen soldiers for proper burial.
Post Civil War, Memorial Day is established.
Key Figures
Ulysses S. Grant, Union general and commander of the Army of the Potomac. He believed in constant pressure on the Confederacy, even if it caused high casualties.
Robert E. Lee, Confederate general. He was determined to defend Richmond at all costs.
William Tecumseh Sherman, Union general leading campaigns in the Deep South, especially toward Atlanta.
Important Battles
Battle of the Wilderness
Location, wooded area near the Rapidan River in Virginia.
Outcome, extremely deadly and chaotic fighting.
Casualties, nearly 10,000 Confederate soldiers killed or wounded and more than 17,000 Union soldiers killed or wounded.
Battle of Cold Harbor
Location, near Richmond, Virginia.
Outcome, major Union losses with little strategic gain.
Casualties, about 15,000 men killed or wounded.
Key Locations
Rapidan River, crossing point for the Union Army into Confederate territory.
Wilderness, Virginia, dense forest where soldiers fought at close range.
Richmond, Virginia, Confederate capital and main defensive priority for Lee.
Atlanta, Georgia, critical Confederate city targeted by Sherman.
Major Decisions and Strategies
Grant chose to attack Lee directly instead of retreating after heavy losses.
Lee concentrated his forces around Richmond, limiting Confederate ability to defend other regions.
The Union accepted high casualties to wear down the Confederate army.
Significance
The battles showed Grant’s strategy of total war and constant pressure.
Thousands of bodies were left unburied on battlefields, highlighting the human cost of the war.
African Americans were often assigned burial and cleanup duties after battles.
The condition of Civil War graves helped inspire the creation of Memorial Day, a national day to honor fallen soldiers.
The 1860 Election and the Start of the Civil War
Key Turning Point
The election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 was a major turning point in U.S. history. Southern leaders saw Lincoln’s victory as a direct threat because:
The Republican Party opposed the expansion of slavery into new western territories.
Southerners feared Republicans would use force (like John Brown’s violent raid) to end slavery altogether.
Lincoln did not initially plan to abolish slavery where it already existed, but he did oppose its spread into new lands.
Secession and the Confederacy
Who Seceded and Formed a New Nation
Eleven southern states left the Union after Lincoln’s election and formed the Confederate States of America (CSA). These states did this to protect slavery and preserve their way of life.
The first wave of secession included:
South Carolina – December 20, 1860
Mississippi, Florida, Alabama – soon after
Georgia – January 19, 1861
Louisiana – January 26, 1861
Texas – February 1, 1861
These states formed a government based on preserving slavery and limiting federal power.
Important Dates – Pre-War
1819 & 1830s — Debates over slavery expansion begin with Missouri and Texas statehood.
1846–1848 — After the Mexican-American War, questions about slavery in new territories flare up again.
1850 — Compromise of 1850 attempts peace using popular sovereignty.
1854 — Kansas-Nebraska Act ends the Missouri Compromise line and leads to Bleeding Kansas.
1860 Election — Lincoln wins; tensions reach a peak.
Dec 20, 1860 — South Carolina secedes.
Jan 16, 1861 — Senate rejects Crittenden Compromise.
Feb 1861 — Confederate Constitution written in Montgomery, Alabama.
Mar 4, 1861 — Lincoln inaugurated.
Apr 12–14, 1861 — Battle of Fort Sumter sparks the Civil War.
Causes of the Civil War
The war wasn’t caused only by Lincoln’s election. Several deep, long-lasting issues fueled the split:
1. Slavery and Its Expansion
The big question was whether slavery should spread into new western states and territories.
Missouri Compromise (1820) tried to balance free and slave states.
Popular Sovereignty (letting settlers decide) became controversial after the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854).
Bleeding Kansas showed how violent this fight could be.
2. Abolitionist Movement
Led by reformers like William Lloyd Garrison, abolitionists called slavery a moral sin.
John Brown used violence against slavery, heightening fears in the South.
3. New Political Parties
Parties that opposed slavery expansion:
Liberty Party (1840)
Free-Soil Party (1848)
Republican Party (1854)
These parties brought the slavery issue into national politics.
The Crittenden Compromise (1860)
Senator John Crittenden tried to prevent secession with a series of constitutional amendments:
Restored the 36°30′ line from the Missouri Compromise and extended it to the Pacific.
Protected slavery south of that line and prohibited interference with slavery where it already existed.
Outcome:
Republicans rejected it because it allowed slavery to expand.
Southern leaders rejected it because it limited slavery’s reach.
Formation of the CSA (Confederate States of America)
Created in Montgomery, Alabama, in early 1861.
Drafted a constitution based on the U.S. Constitution but explicitly protected slavery.
Guaranteed slavery in new territories and protected it as property.
Central leaders:
Jefferson Davis – President of the CSA
Alexander Stephens – Vice President
By spring of 1861, four more states joined the Confederacy:
Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina
The Confederacy also claimed Missouri and Kentucky, though they never formally seceded by ordinance.
Lincoln’s Inauguration and Response
On March 4, 1861, Lincoln stated:
He would not interfere with slavery where it already existed.
He would not allow the Union to be dissolved by individual states.
He declared secession unconstitutional.
Fort Sumter – Start of the War
Located in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina.
Confederate forces attacked on April 12, 1861.
Union soldiers surrendered two days later.
This marked the official start of the Civil War.
Lincoln then called for troops on April 15, 1861.
Upper South Joins the Confederacy
After Fort Sumter:
Virginia seceded on April 17, 1861
Arkansas – May 6
Tennessee – May 7
North Carolina – May 20
However, parts of these regions resisted secession:
West Virginia broke away from Virginia and became a free state in 1863.
Border States
These slave-holding states remained in the Union:
Delaware
Maryland
Missouri
Kentucky
Their loyalty helped prevent the Confederacy from gaining more resources and territory.
Important Figures
Abraham Lincoln – Union President
Jefferson Davis – President of the CSA
John Crittenden – Proposed compromise
William Lloyd Garrison – Abolitionist leader
John Brown – Radical abolitionist whose violence intensified tensions
Key Terms
Secession – Withdrawal of states from the Union
Popular Sovereignty – Letting settlers decide on slavery
Confederacy – Southern government based on state power and slavery
Fort Sumter – First battle of the Civil War
Bleeding Kansas – Violent conflict over slavery in Kansas
Early Civil War Overview (1861–1862)Overall War Goals
Union goal, restore the Union, Lincoln argued it could never be legally broken.
Confederate goal, independence from the United States.
Slavery, central to the conflict, though abolitionism and western expansion also mattered.
Public attitude in 1861, both sides believed the war would be quick and glorious.
Reality, the war became long, deadly, and far more evenly matched than expected.
The First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas)
Important Date and Location
July 21, 1861
Near Manassas, Virginia, along Bull Run Creek
About 30 miles from Washington, DC
Key Figures
Abraham Lincoln, called for troops after Fort Sumter.
Union Army, inexperienced volunteers.
Confederate Army, defending Virginia.
Battle Details
Around 60,000 total troops assembled.
About 18,000 soldiers from each side actually fought.
Union forces attacked first but were pushed back.
Confederate counterattack caused a chaotic Union retreat.
Why Bull Run Was Important
Confederate victory shattered hopes of a quick war.
Proved the Confederacy was capable of defending itself.
Made it clear the war would last much longer than expected.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Confederacy
Confederate Strengths
Fighting a defensive war, protecting their own territory.
Strong knowledge of local terrain.
Support from much of the Southern civilian population.
Long coastline allowed some blockade evasion.
Addition of Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas increased resources.
Confederate Weaknesses
Heavy reliance on cotton exports, hurt by the Union blockade.
Limited industry and railroad networks.
Difficulty importing manufactured goods.
Printing paper money caused severe inflation.
Smaller population, fewer than 9 million people, including nearly 4 million enslaved people.
War damage devastated Southern farms, towns, and civilians.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Union
Union Strengths
Population of over 20 million people.
Continued European immigration boosted manpower.
Strong industrial base.
Extensive railroad system for moving troops and supplies.
Abundant food supply from Northern and Midwestern farms.
Ability to produce weapons, clothing, and ammunition consistently.
Union Weaknesses
Had to fight an offensive war, invading the South.
Long and vulnerable supply lines.
Soldiers fought on unfamiliar land among hostile civilians.
After military victory, would still need to reunite and govern the South.
Military Stalemate (1861–Early 1862)
Why the War Stalled
Many officers on both sides were trained at West Point.
Leaders knew each other’s strategies.
Both sides focused on capturing the enemy capital:
Union target, Richmond, Virginia
Confederate target, Washington, DC
George B. McClellan
Commander of the Army of the Potomac.
Extremely cautious and overestimated Confederate strength.
Popular with troops but frustrated Lincoln and Congress.
Delayed attacks and missed opportunities.
Seven Days Battles
Important Dates and Location
June 25–July 1, 1862
Near Richmond, Virginia
Key Figures
George B. McClellan, Union commander.
Robert E. Lee, Confederate commander.
Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, Confederate general.
Battle Details
Jackson drew Union troops away from Richmond.
Lee attacked McClellan’s remaining forces.
Casualties:
Nearly 20,000 Confederate
About 10,000 Union
Union failed to capture Richmond and retreated.
Significance
Boosted Confederate confidence.
Confirmed McClellan’s inability to win decisively.
Second Battle of Bull Run and Antietam
Second Battle of Bull Run
Summer 1862
Location, Northern Virginia
Confederate victory strengthened Lee’s position.
Battle of Antietam
September 17, 1862
Near Sharpsburg, Maryland, along Antietam Creek
Bloodiest single day of the war.
About 8,000 soldiers killed or wounded.
Lee retreated first, but McClellan failed to pursue.
Outcome
Lincoln lost confidence in McClellan.
McClellan removed from command.
Union Leadership Changes
Ambrose Burnside
Took command in late 1862.
Defeated at Fredericksburg in December 1862.
Union morale dropped, Confederate morale rose.
Joseph “Fighting Joe” Hooker
Took command in January 1863 after Burnside’s failure.
The Western Theater and Ulysses S. Grant
Union Strategy in the West
Gain control of major rivers, especially the Mississippi River.
Split the Confederacy in two.
Battle of Shiloh
Important Dates and Location
April 6–7, 1862
Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee
Near Shiloh Church and the Tennessee River
Key Figures
Ulysses S. Grant, Union commander.
William Tecumseh Sherman, Union general.
Albert Sidney Johnston, Confederate general, killed in battle.
P. G. T. Beauregard, Confederate commander after Johnston’s death.
Battle Details
Confederate surprise attack on April 6.
Goal, cut Union supply line and drive them into swamps.
Union troops panicked and fled.
Johnston killed, weakening Confederate leadership.
Union reinforcements arrived and counterattacked on April 7.
Confederates were forced to retreat.
Significance
Major Union victory in the West.
Secured Union foothold in Tennessee.
Allowed Union to focus on controlling the Mississippi River.
Union Control of the Mississippi (1862)
Key Events
April 1862, Admiral David Farragut captured New Orleans.
Confederate forces moved artillery to Vicksburg, Mississippi.
Fort Pillow, near Memphis, abandoned on June 4, 1862.
Memphis fell on June 6, 1862.
Why This Mattered
Weakened Confederate trade and transportation.
Brought the Union closer to splitting the Confederacy in two.
Early Civil War Overview (1861–1862)Overall War Goals
Union goal, restore the Union, Lincoln argued it could never be legally broken.
Confederate goal, independence from the United States.
Slavery, central to the conflict, though abolitionism and western expansion also mattered.
Public attitude in 1861, both sides believed the war would be quick and glorious.
Reality, the war became long, deadly, and far more evenly matched than expected.
The First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas)
Important Date and Location
July 21, 1861
Near Manassas, Virginia, along Bull Run Creek
About 30 miles from Washington, DC
Key Figures
Abraham Lincoln, called for troops after Fort Sumter.
Union Army, inexperienced volunteers.
Confederate Army, defending Virginia.
Battle Details
Around 60,000 total troops assembled.
About 18,000 soldiers from each side actually fought.
Union forces attacked first but were pushed back.
Confederate counterattack caused a chaotic Union retreat.
Why Bull Run Was Important
Confederate victory shattered hopes of a quick war.
Proved the Confederacy was capable of defending itself.
Made it clear the war would last much longer than expected.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Confederacy
Confederate Strengths
Fighting a defensive war, protecting their own territory.
Strong knowledge of local terrain.
Support from much of the Southern civilian population.
Long coastline allowed some blockade evasion.
Addition of Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas increased resources.
Confederate Weaknesses
Heavy reliance on cotton exports, hurt by the Union blockade.
Limited industry and railroad networks.
Difficulty importing manufactured goods.
Printing paper money caused severe inflation.
Smaller population, fewer than 9 million people, including nearly 4 million enslaved people.
War damage devastated Southern farms, towns, and civilians.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Union
Union Strengths
Population of over 20 million people.
Continued European immigration boosted manpower.
Strong industrial base.
Extensive railroad system for moving troops and supplies.
Abundant food supply from Northern and Midwestern farms.
Ability to produce weapons, clothing, and ammunition consistently.
Union Weaknesses
Had to fight an offensive war, invading the South.
Long and vulnerable supply lines.
Soldiers fought on unfamiliar land among hostile civilians.
After military victory, would still need to reunite and govern the South.
Military Stalemate (1861–Early 1862)
Why the War Stalled
Many officers on both sides were trained at West Point.
Leaders knew each other’s strategies.
Both sides focused on capturing the enemy capital:
Union target, Richmond, Virginia
Confederate target, Washington, DC
George B. McClellan
Commander of the Army of the Potomac.
Extremely cautious and overestimated Confederate strength.
Popular with troops but frustrated Lincoln and Congress.
Delayed attacks and missed opportunities.
Seven Days Battles
Important Dates and Location
June 25–July 1, 1862
Near Richmond, Virginia
Key Figures
George B. McClellan, Union commander.
Robert E. Lee, Confederate commander.
Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, Confederate general.
Battle Details
Jackson drew Union troops away from Richmond.
Lee attacked McClellan’s remaining forces.
Casualties:
Nearly 20,000 Confederate
About 10,000 Union
Union failed to capture Richmond and retreated.
Significance
Boosted Confederate confidence.
Confirmed McClellan’s inability to win decisively.
Second Battle of Bull Run and Antietam
Second Battle of Bull Run
Summer 1862
Location, Northern Virginia
Confederate victory strengthened Lee’s position.
Battle of Antietam
September 17, 1862
Near Sharpsburg, Maryland, along Antietam Creek
Bloodiest single day of the war.
About 8,000 soldiers killed or wounded.
Lee retreated first, but McClellan failed to pursue.
Outcome
Lincoln lost confidence in McClellan.
McClellan removed from command.
Union Leadership Changes
Ambrose Burnside
Took command in late 1862.
Defeated at Fredericksburg in December 1862.
Union morale dropped, Confederate morale rose.
Joseph “Fighting Joe” Hooker
Took command in January 1863 after Burnside’s failure.
The Western Theater and Ulysses S. Grant
Union Strategy in the West
Gain control of major rivers, especially the Mississippi River.
Split the Confederacy in two.
Battle of Shiloh
Important Dates and Location
April 6–7, 1862
Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee
Near Shiloh Church and the Tennessee River
Key Figures
Ulysses S. Grant, Union commander.
William Tecumseh Sherman, Union general.
Albert Sidney Johnston, Confederate general, killed in battle.
P. G. T. Beauregard, Confederate commander after Johnston’s death.
Battle Details
Confederate surprise attack on April 6.
Goal, cut Union supply line and drive them into swamps.
Union troops panicked and fled.
Johnston killed, weakening Confederate leadership.
Union reinforcements arrived and counterattacked on April 7.
Confederates were forced to retreat.
Significance
Major Union victory in the West.
Secured Union foothold in Tennessee.
Allowed Union to focus on controlling the Mississippi River.
Union Control of the Mississippi (1862)
Key Events
April 1862, Admiral David Farragut captured New Orleans.
Confederate forces moved artillery to Vicksburg, Mississippi.
Fort Pillow, near Memphis, abandoned on June 4, 1862.
Memphis fell on June 6, 1862.
Why This Mattered
Weakened Confederate trade and transportation.
Brought the Union closer to splitting the Confederacy in two.
Total War in the Civil War
What “Total War” Means
Total war is a type of warfare in which:
Armies attack both military and civilian targets.
Governments mobilize all resources, including people, industry, and agriculture.
Civilian life becomes directly affected by the war.
By late 1862, the Civil War had shifted toward total war.
Railroads, farms, cities, and supplies became targets.
Governments expanded power over citizens’ lives.
Neither side fully erased the line between civilian and military targets, but the distinction weakened greatly.
Confederate Mobilization
Centralization of Power
Confederate capital, Richmond, Virginia.
The Confederate government took on strong centralized powers, contradicting states’ rights beliefs.
Military Draft
April 1862, Confederacy instituted the first national draft in U.S. history.
Required men ages 18–35 to serve three years.
Wealthy men could hire substitutes, causing resentment among poor Whites.
Confederate Congress blocked state attempts to avoid the draft.
Economic Mobilization
Government took control of Southern industry and transportation.
Enslaved people were impressed, forced to work on railroads and fortifications.
Cotton exports collapsed due to the Union blockade.
Suspension of Civil Liberties
1862, Confederate Congress allowed President Jefferson Davis to suspend habeas corpus.
Suspected enemies could be jailed without trial.
This contradicted earlier Confederate arguments about limited government.
Inflation and Civil Unrest
Confederacy refused to tax enslaved people or cotton.
Printed large amounts of paper money.
Resulted in runaway inflation and food shortages.
April 1863, food riots broke out in Richmond, Virginia, led mostly by hungry women.
Riot ended after Davis threatened military force.
Foreign Policy Failure
Confederacy relied on “King Cotton Diplomacy.”
Hoped Britain and France would support the South to protect textile industries.
Britain avoided war with the U.S. and found cotton elsewhere, India and Egypt.
The Confederacy gained no foreign allies.
Internal Dissent
States’ rights supporters opposed conscription and taxation.
Governors resisted supplying troops and resources.
Vice President Alexander Stephens opposed draft and suspension of habeas corpus.
Class resentment grew over substitute exemptions.
Enslaved and free Black people were feared but barred from Confederate military service.
Union Mobilization
Government Expansion
Federal government expanded taxation and regulation.
Contracted with private companies for weapons, food, and supplies.
Almost every Northern industry became tied to the war.
Major Laws Passed in 1862
Homestead Act, 160 acres to settlers who farmed land for five years.
Pacific Railway Act, created the Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads.
Morrill Land Grant Act, created agricultural colleges using federal land grants.
Financing the War
Income tax on the wealthy.
Taxes on inheritances.
High tariffs.
National Bank Acts (1863 and 1864) created a national banking system.
Legal Tender Act of 1862, authorized printing paper money called greenbacks.
About $150 million printed.
Economy boomed but inflation increased.
Union Draft
Enrollment Act of March 1863.
Required registration of:
Unmarried men ages 20–25
Married men ages 35–45
Immigrants who had filed for citizenship included.
Draftees chosen by lottery.
$300 payment or substitute allowed exemption.
African Americans exempt because they were not considered citizens.
Civil Liberties
Lincoln suspended habeas corpus in Maryland (1861–1862).
Habeas Corpus Suspension Act of 1863 expanded this power nationwide.
About 300 newspapers shut down for security reasons.
Women’s Mobilization
Women’s Roles
Ran farms and businesses.
Sewed uniforms and raised money.
Served as nurses, cooks, and laundresses.
Joined the U.S. Sanitary Commission (June 1861).
Dorothea Dix organized Union nurses.
Some women served as spies or disguised themselves to fight.
Emancipation and Slavery
Lincoln’s Early Position
Personally opposed slavery but did not believe he could legally abolish it.
Feared alienating border states.
Primary goal in 1861–1862, save the Union.
Contrabands
May 1861, General Benjamin Butler labeled escaped enslaved people as contraband.
Union refused to return them to slavery.
Congressional Actions
Confiscation Act of 1861, seized enslaved people used by Confederacy.
April 1862, slavery abolished in Washington, DC.
Confiscation Act of 1862, freed enslaved people captured or escaped to Union lines.
July 1862, slavery banned in U.S. territories.
The Emancipation Proclamation
Key Dates
September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued an ultimatum after Antietam.
January 1, 1863, Emancipation Proclamation issued.
What It Did
Freed enslaved people in states still in rebellion.
Did not apply to:
Border states
Union-occupied areas
Issued under Lincoln’s war powers as commander-in-chief.
Why It Mattered
Made emancipation a Union war goal.
Undermined the Confederate labor system.
Prevented foreign recognition of the Confederacy.
Changed the moral purpose of the war.
Paved the way for the 13th Amendment.
Northern Reaction and the Draft Riots
New York City Draft Riots
July 13–16, 1863.
Caused by anger over the draft and emancipation.
White mobs attacked Black citizens and Union symbols.
An African American orphanage was destroyed.
Over 100 killed, about 1,000 injured.
Federal troops ended the violence.
About 20 percent of NYC’s Black population fled.
Why 1863 Was a Pivotal Year
Battle of Vicksburg
July 3, 1863, Vicksburg surrendered.
Gave Union full control of the Mississippi River.
Split the Confederacy in two.
Battle of Gettysburg
July 1–3, 1863, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
Largest battle ever fought in North America.
Pickett’s Charge failed disastrously.
Casualties:
Union, about 23,000
Confederacy, about 28,000
Lee retreated and never again invaded the North.
Combined Impact
Gettysburg and Vicksburg occurred on the same day.
Marked the turning point of the war.
Confederate momentum collapsed.
Union gained advantage in both east and west.
The Gettysburg Address
Date and Location
November 19, 1863
Soldiers’ National Cemetery, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
Key Ideas
War tested whether democracy could survive.
Soldiers died to preserve the Union and ensure equality.
Called for a “new birth of freedom.”
Reaffirmed government “of the people, by the people, for the people.”
Total War in the Civil War
What “Total War” Means
Total war is a type of warfare in which:
Armies attack both military and civilian targets.
Governments mobilize all resources, including people, industry, and agriculture.
Civilian life becomes directly affected by the war.
By late 1862, the Civil War had shifted toward total war.
Railroads, farms, cities, and supplies became targets.
Governments expanded power over citizens’ lives.
Neither side fully erased the line between civilian and military targets, but the distinction weakened greatly.
Confederate Mobilization
Centralization of Power
Confederate capital, Richmond, Virginia.
The Confederate government took on strong centralized powers, contradicting states’ rights beliefs.
Military Draft
April 1862, Confederacy instituted the first national draft in U.S. history.
Required men ages 18–35 to serve three years.
Wealthy men could hire substitutes, causing resentment among poor Whites.
Confederate Congress blocked state attempts to avoid the draft.
Economic Mobilization
Government took control of Southern industry and transportation.
Enslaved people were impressed, forced to work on railroads and fortifications.
Cotton exports collapsed due to the Union blockade.
Suspension of Civil Liberties
1862, Confederate Congress allowed President Jefferson Davis to suspend habeas corpus.
Suspected enemies could be jailed without trial.
This contradicted earlier Confederate arguments about limited government.
Inflation and Civil Unrest
Confederacy refused to tax enslaved people or cotton.
Printed large amounts of paper money.
Resulted in runaway inflation and food shortages.
April 1863, food riots broke out in Richmond, Virginia, led mostly by hungry women.
Riot ended after Davis threatened military force.
Foreign Policy Failure
Confederacy relied on “King Cotton Diplomacy.”
Hoped Britain and France would support the South to protect textile industries.
Britain avoided war with the U.S. and found cotton elsewhere, India and Egypt.
The Confederacy gained no foreign allies.
Internal Dissent
States’ rights supporters opposed conscription and taxation.
Governors resisted supplying troops and resources.
Vice President Alexander Stephens opposed draft and suspension of habeas corpus.
Class resentment grew over substitute exemptions.
Enslaved and free Black people were feared but barred from Confederate military service.
Union Mobilization
Government Expansion
Federal government expanded taxation and regulation.
Contracted with private companies for weapons, food, and supplies.
Almost every Northern industry became tied to the war.
Major Laws Passed in 1862
Homestead Act, 160 acres to settlers who farmed land for five years.
Pacific Railway Act, created the Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads.
Morrill Land Grant Act, created agricultural colleges using federal land grants.
Financing the War
Income tax on the wealthy.
Taxes on inheritances.
High tariffs.
National Bank Acts (1863 and 1864) created a national banking system.
Legal Tender Act of 1862, authorized printing paper money called greenbacks.
About $150 million printed.
Economy boomed but inflation increased.
Union Draft
Enrollment Act of March 1863.
Required registration of:
Unmarried men ages 20–25
Married men ages 35–45
Immigrants who had filed for citizenship included.
Draftees chosen by lottery.
$300 payment or substitute allowed exemption.
African Americans exempt because they were not considered citizens.
Civil Liberties
Lincoln suspended habeas corpus in Maryland (1861–1862).
Habeas Corpus Suspension Act of 1863 expanded this power nationwide.
About 300 newspapers shut down for security reasons.
Women’s Mobilization
Women’s Roles
Ran farms and businesses.
Sewed uniforms and raised money.
Served as nurses, cooks, and laundresses.
Joined the U.S. Sanitary Commission (June 1861).
Dorothea Dix organized Union nurses.
Some women served as spies or disguised themselves to fight.
Emancipation and Slavery
Lincoln’s Early Position
Personally opposed slavery but did not believe he could legally abolish it.
Feared alienating border states.
Primary goal in 1861–1862, save the Union.
Contrabands
May 1861, General Benjamin Butler labeled escaped enslaved people as contraband.
Union refused to return them to slavery.
Congressional Actions
Confiscation Act of 1861, seized enslaved people used by Confederacy.
April 1862, slavery abolished in Washington, DC.
Confiscation Act of 1862, freed enslaved people captured or escaped to Union lines.
July 1862, slavery banned in U.S. territories.
The Emancipation Proclamation
Key Dates
September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued an ultimatum after Antietam.
January 1, 1863, Emancipation Proclamation issued.
What It Did
Freed enslaved people in states still in rebellion.
Did not apply to:
Border states
Union-occupied areas
Issued under Lincoln’s war powers as commander-in-chief.
Why It Mattered
Made emancipation a Union war goal.
Undermined the Confederate labor system.
Prevented foreign recognition of the Confederacy.
Changed the moral purpose of the war.
Paved the way for the 13th Amendment.
Northern Reaction and the Draft Riots
New York City Draft Riots
July 13–16, 1863.
Caused by anger over the draft and emancipation.
White mobs attacked Black citizens and Union symbols.
An African American orphanage was destroyed.
Over 100 killed, about 1,000 injured.
Federal troops ended the violence.
About 20 percent of NYC’s Black population fled.
Why 1863 Was a Pivotal Year
Battle of Vicksburg
July 3, 1863, Vicksburg surrendered.
Gave Union full control of the Mississippi River.
Split the Confederacy in two.
Battle of Gettysburg
July 1–3, 1863, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
Largest battle ever fought in North America.
Pickett’s Charge failed disastrously.
Casualties:
Union, about 23,000
Confederacy, about 28,000
Lee retreated and never again invaded the North.
Combined Impact
Gettysburg and Vicksburg occurred on the same day.
Marked the turning point of the war.
Confederate momentum collapsed.
Union gained advantage in both east and west.
The Gettysburg Address
Date and Location
November 19, 1863
Soldiers’ National Cemetery, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
Key Ideas
War tested whether democracy could survive.
Soldiers died to preserve the Union and ensure equality.
Called for a “new birth of freedom.”
Reaffirmed government “of the people, by the people, for the people.”
Total War and Mass MobilizationTotal War
Total war means using all available resources to defeat the enemy, including targeting civilian resources, transportation, food supplies, and morale. The Civil War became a total war by late 1862.Key ideas
Armies targeted railroads, farms, factories, and cities
Governments expanded power over citizens
Civilian life was directly affected
Confederate Mobilization
Government actions
Capital: Richmond, Virginia
Draft enacted: April 1862
Draft terms: Men aged 18–35 required to serve 3 years
Wealthy men could hire substitutes, which caused resentment
Confederate Congress blocked states from avoiding the draft
Economic control
Government took control of Southern industry and transportation
Enslaved people were impressed, meaning seized and forced to work on railroads and fortifications
No taxes on cotton or enslaved people, which protected wealthy plantation owners
Heavy printing of paper money led to runaway inflation
Habeas Corpus
1862: Confederate Congress allowed President Jefferson Davis to suspend habeas corpus
Allowed arrest and detention without trial
Contradicted Southern states’ rights ideology
Internal conflict
Richmond Bread Riot: April 1863
Thousands of starving women protested food shortages
Davis threatened military force to stop the riot
Class resentment between poor Whites and wealthy slaveholders
Fear of enslaved uprisings and racial tension
Foreign relations
Hoped Britain and France would support Confederacy due to cotton
Britain avoided war with the U.S. and found cotton in India and Egypt
Blockade hurt Southern trade
No European alliance formed
Union Mobilization
Economic and political actions
Stronger industrial base than the South
New taxes on income and inheritances
High tariffs
Government contracts fueled industrial growth
Key legislation
Homestead Act (1862): 160 acres for settlers after 5 years
Morrill Act (1862): Land grant colleges for agriculture
Pacific Railway Act: Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads
Legal Tender Act (1862): Printed paper money called greenbacks
National Bank Acts (1863, 1864): War bonds and national banking system
Draft
Enrollment Act: March 1863
Men aged 20–25 and 35–45 required to register
Substitutes allowed or $300 fee
African Americans excluded due to Dred Scott decision
Civil liberties
Lincoln suspended habeas corpus
Habeas Corpus Suspension Act: March 1863
300 newspapers shut down
Women’s Mobilization
Roles
Ran farms and businesses
Sewed uniforms, raised money
Served as nurses, cooks, laundresses
United States Sanitary Commission founded June 1861
Dorothea Dix organized Union nurses
Some women served as spies or disguised soldiers
Emancipation and Slavery
Early war policy
Lincoln focused on saving the Union, not ending slavery
Feared border states joining Confederacy
Key actions
Contrabands: Escaped enslaved people protected by Union army (May 1861)
Confiscation Act (1861): Seized Confederate property, including enslaved people
Slavery abolished in DC: April 1862
Second Confiscation Act: July 1862
Slavery banned in territories (Free Soil goal achieved)
Emancipation Proclamation
Preliminary: September 22, 1862
Issued: January 1, 1863
Freed enslaved people only in Confederate states in rebellion
Did not apply to border states or Union occupied areas
Made emancipation a Union war goal
Discouraged British support for Confederacy
African American Soldiers
Enlistment
Allowed after Emancipation Proclamation
Over 190,000 African American soldiers by 1865
85 percent were formerly enslaved
Treatment
Paid less until 1864
Often assigned labor roles
Equal pay granted in 1864 with back pay
Key units and events
54th Massachusetts Regiment
Fort Wagner, South Carolina: Heroic but costly assault
Fort Pillow Massacre
April 1864
Location: Tennessee
Confederate general Nathan Bedford Forrest
African American soldiers executed after surrender
Union stopped prisoner exchanges afterward
Turning Point Year: 1863
Western Theater
Vicksburg, Mississippi
Siege ended July 3, 1863
Union gained full control of Mississippi River
Split the Confederacy
Eastern Theater
Battle of Gettysburg
Location: Gettysburg, Pennsylvania
Dates: July 1–3, 1863
Largest battle in North American history
Pickett’s Charge: Failed Confederate assault
Union casualties: ~23,000
Confederate casualties: ~28,000
Lee retreated July 4
Gettysburg Address
November 19, 1863
Lincoln reframed war as fight for equality and democracy
Campaigns of 1864–1865
Grant vs. Lee
Battle of the Wilderness: May 5–7, 1864
Spotsylvania: May 8–12, 1864
Cold Harbor: June 3, 1864
Heavy Union casualties
Siege of Petersburg lasted 9 months
Sherman’s Campaign
Atlanta fell: September 2, 1864
Boosted Northern morale
March to the Sea: Atlanta to Savannah
Savannah captured December 21, 1864
Destroyed farms, railroads, crops
Continued into South Carolina, burned Columbia
Election of 1864
Opposition to Lincoln
Anger over draft and emancipation
Democrats labeled Copperheads
Opponent: George B. McClellan
Republican split
Radicals wanted full Black rights and harsh reconstruction
Lincoln stayed moderate
Why Lincoln won
Fall of Atlanta
Sheridan’s victories in Shenandoah Valley
Reelected November 1864
Lost only New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky
End of the War
Final surrenders
Lee surrendered: April 9, 1865
Location: Appomattox Court House, Virginia
Johnston surrendered: April 26, 1865 (North Carolina)
Cost of war
Over 600,000 soldiers killed
Widespread destruction
Massive social and economic impact
Reconstruction ahead
1. Which of the following does not represent a goal of the Confederate States of America?
Answer: to ensure that the international slave trade would be allowed to continue
Explanation: The Confederacy wanted to protect slavery and its domestic trade, and expand slavery into western territories, but the international slave trade had already been banned in the U.S. in 1808 and was not a goal to restore.
2. Which was not a provision of the Crittenden Compromise?
Answer: that the Five Civilized Tribes would be admitted into the Confederacy
Explanation: The compromise focused on protecting slavery in existing states and territories, including extending the 36°30′ line and prohibiting Congress from abolishing slavery where it existed, but it did not address the tribes joining the Confederacy.
3. Why did the states of the Deep South secede from the Union sooner than the states of the Upper South and the border states?
Answer: They seceded quickly because they believed Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party would abolish slavery, which threatened their economy and way of life. The Upper South and border states were more moderate and waited to see how events unfolded.
4. All the following were strengths of the Union except ________.
Answer: the ability to fight defensively, rather than offensively
Explanation: The Union generally had to fight offensively to invade the South, which was a disadvantage compared to the Confederacy’s defensive position.
5. All the following were strengths of the Confederacy except ________.
Answer: a strong navy
Explanation: The Confederacy had no significant navy and relied mainly on privateers and limited blockade runners.
6. What military successes and defeats did the Union experience in 1862?
Answer: The Union won some battles in the western theater but faced defeats in the eastern theater. The Union captured forts and gained control of some areas, but the Confederacy won key battles like the Second Battle of Bull Run, showing that victory was not yet certain.
7. Which of the following did the North not do to mobilize for war?
Answer: form a military alliance with Great Britain
Explanation: The Union mobilized by instituting a draft, printing paper money, and passing the Homestead Act, but it did not form an alliance with Britain.
8. Why is 1863 considered a turning point in the Civil War?
Answer: Two major events in 1863 shifted momentum to the Union: the Battle of Gettysburg, which ended Lee’s invasion of the North, and the capture of Vicksburg, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River and splitting the Confederacy.
9. Which of the following is not a reason why many people opposed Lincoln’s reelection in 1864?
Answer: He had replaced General George B. McClellan.
Explanation: McClellan was Lincoln’s Democratic opponent. People opposed Lincoln for suspending habeas corpus, issuing the Emancipation Proclamation, and viewing him as a dictator, not for replacing McClellan.
10. What was General Sherman’s objective on his March to the Sea?
Answer: to destroy military and civilian resources wherever possible
Explanation: Sherman used total war to weaken the Confederacy’s ability to fight by destroying infrastructure, crops, and supplies.
11. Could the differences between the North and South have been worked out in late 1860 and 1861? Could war have been avoided? Provide evidence to support your answer.
Answer: It is unlikely the differences could have been fully worked out because the South’s main goal—protecting and expanding slavery—directly conflicted with the North’s growing anti-slavery sentiment. The failure of compromises like the Crittenden Compromise shows that political solutions could not bridge this divide.
12. Why did the North prevail in the Civil War? What might have turned the tide of the war against the North?
Answer: The North won because it had a larger population, greater industry, more railroads, and superior resources. Effective military leadership by Grant and Sherman and the enlistment of African American soldiers also helped. The tide could have turned against the North if Britain or France had intervened for the Confederacy or if Union generals had repeatedly failed to achieve victories.
13. If you were in charge of the Confederate war effort, what strategy or strategies would you have pursued? Conversely, if you had to devise the Union strategy, what would you propose? How does your answer depend on your knowledge of how the war actually played out?
Answer: As a Confederate commander, I would focus on defensive warfare, conserving manpower, and trying to gain foreign recognition. For the Union, I would pursue total war, targeting infrastructure, splitting the Confederacy, and using superior resources to force surrender, similar to what Grant and Sherman actually did. This strategy is based on the historical outcome that showed the South could not sustain a long war without external support.
14. What do you believe to be the enduring qualities of the Gettysburg Address? Why has this two-minute speech so endured?
Answer: The Gettysburg Address endures because it redefined the Civil War as a fight for freedom and equality rather than just preserving the Union. Its brevity, clarity, and moral vision made it powerful and memorable, inspiring generations to value democracy and the principle that “all men are created equal.”
15. What role did women and African Americans play in the war?
Answer: Women ran farms, businesses, and hospitals, and served as nurses and spies. African Americans served as soldiers, with over 190,000 enlisting in the Union army, often facing discrimination and dangerous assignments. Both groups contributed to the Union’s strength and helped shape the moral and practical goals of the war.