Module Three Notes: Colonial Latin America (Chapter 3)

Thematic Introduction

European control over the Americas was uneven in both extent and effectiveness. The conquest of Latin America and the Caribbean took about 100\text{ years} to complete, and even today some regions remain only partially integrated into modern nation-states.
Why uneven? Europeans focused on areas most suitable for survival and prosperity, avoiding tropical lowlands perceived as unhealthy and labor-scarce.
They built cities and towns where indigenous populations were concentrated, where agriculture existed, and where land was available. Examples:
- Central Mexico (heartland of the Aztec Empire) became a major European settlement area.
- Brazil, with relatively lighter population, imported millions of African slaves to meet labor demands.
- Remote regions of the Andes with silver mines relied on Indigenous communities in populated areas to supply labor.
Colonial governance established by appointed officials to maintain control; a European system adapted to American realities.
The conquest was an evolutionary process rather than a single, uniform transformation.
Conquistadors were rewarded with land grants called Encomienda. These land grants came with people (the labor force) and with power and prestige. In exchange for land and labor, conquistadors acted as an extension of European authority, maintaining order and defending interests.
Encomiendas covered vast tracts of land with thousands of inhabitants under the control of an Encomendero. This organization laid the groundwork for later hacienda systems, whose owner was the hacendado.

Colonial Governance and Expansion

Colonial governments were established with appointed officials to manage and oversee territories in the name of the Crown.
The system was imported from Europe but adapted to the Americas' distinct circumstances.
The Spanish Empire was the first major European colonial power in the Americas; although earlier European colonization traditions existed (e.g., Roman imperial practices in Europe), sustained European colonization of the Caribbean and mainland Americas began with Spain’s expansions.
The central challenge was to design political, economic, and social structures that ensured European dominance in the new territories.
The control of the New World developed progressively and adaptively over time, rather than instantly.

Encomienda and the Emergence of the Hacienda

Encomienda: a grant of land to a conquistador that included the people living on that land; the holder could extract tribute and labor.
Encomendero: the holder of an encomienda, who wielded power and was responsible for defense and order.
Encomiendas were the precursors to the hacienda system; the later hacienda owner is called a hacendado.
The encomienda system tied land, population, and political authority together, reinforcing European control over indigenous labor.

The Colonial Church

The Catholic Church was the only religion officially permitted; other religions were banned.
The Church became the largest landowner and one of the most influential institutions in Latin America and the Caribbean.
Church influence followed the uneven geographic pattern of imperial power: power concentrated where imperial authority was strongest.
Traditional religious practices were suppressed during and after conquest but were never fully eliminated and persisted alongside Christianity.
Africans brought their beliefs and continued practice where possible; hybrid religious forms emerged where Amerindian or African beliefs were concentrated.
The Catholic Church generally had to accommodate or overlook local religious practices in homes and communities, effectively adapting to local contexts.
The relationship between church and state was often mediated by mechanisms of royal patronage and local governance, influencing how religion and politics intertwined on the ground.

Religion, Hybridity, and Cultural Resistance

Religious hybridity is common where Indigenous or African belief systems were concentrated.
The Church’s adaptation contributed to a syncretic religious landscape, rather than a complete replacement of traditional beliefs.
Practices and beliefs persisted in homes and communities even when publicly discouraged or restricted.

Research Report Questions (from the transcript)

Discuss the division of the "New World" into two Viceroyalties during the rule of Charles I.
Discuss the role of the Council of the Indies.
Discuss the term “obedezco pero no cumplo” (I obey but I do not execute) as it relates to the colonization of Spanish America.
Discuss the Inquisition in the Americas.
Discuss the "quinto” or royal fifth as a tax system of the Spanish crown.

Keywords and Terms

Quinto: royal fifth; a tax or tribute mechanism associated with the encomienda and colonial revenue streams.
Charles I: King Charles I of Spain (also Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor) during early phases of the American empire.
Philip II: King of Spain who ruled later in the 16th century, overseeing extensive imperial administration.
Viceroy / Viceroyalty: a governor representing the Crown in a major territorial division of the Spanish empire; major administrative units in the colonies.
Audiencia: royal appellate or advisory body within the colonial administration.
Council of the Indies: central body that advised and governed colonial affairs for the Spanish Crown.
Viceroyalty of New Spain: colonial territorial division that included Mexico and other territories in North America and the Caribbean.
Viceroyalty of Peru: territorial division that encompassed much of the Andean region including Peru and surrounding areas.
Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata: colonial division in the southern cone (e.g., parts of present-day Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay).
Society of Jesus (Jesuits): religious order active in missionary and educational work within the colonies.
Caciques: indigenous chiefs or local leaders who mediated between communities and colonial authorities.
Our Lady of Guadalupe: important Marian icon and symbol in the Spanish- and Catholic-imposed religious landscape.
Residencia: a formal review or audit of a colonial official’s conduct and administration after leaving office.
Visita: inspection or visitation to enforce governance and assess practices in distant provinces.
Real Hacienda: the Crown’s royal treasury or royal administration overseeing revenue collection and public finances.
Oidor: a judge in the colonial audiencia, part of the legal-administrative framework.
Ouvidor: an auditor or examiner in the colonial administration, sometimes responsible for investigating abuses.
Patronato Real (Royal Patronage): a system linking the Crown to church activities and the appointment of church officials, solidifying state-church relations.
Oidores (plural of Oidor)
Residencia (also listed): see above for governance oversight and accountability.
Real Hacienda (see above): state treasury and fiscal management.