AP Human Geo

Chapter 4.2 

Political Power & Territoriality

Political power describes geographical control over people, land, and resources. Territoriality connects people, culture, and economic systems to a geographic space. This leads to boundaries, control of people and land, and the defense of such land from foreign entities.

Neocolonialism

Developed countries use economic, political, or military powers to exert force or authority over less developed countries.

 Shatterbelts

An area where cultural, political, or religious divisions collide and cause local conflict. For example, India, post-British rule, had divisions between Muslim and Hindu populations; this led to part of India being split off and the creation of Pakistan.

Chokepoint

An area of land or water that serves as a location of importance for trade or transportation. Countries that control these choke points can exploit this for their economic or political advantage.

Chapter 4.3

Types of political boundaries

Antecedent borders are established before a major settlement occurs in a given territory. Subsequent boundaries are created as the cultural landscape evolves. They often shift with the power of countries or empires. Consequence boundaries are subtypes of subsequent boundaries considering existing cultural/physical factors. Outside powers draw superimposed boundaries and commonly ignore existing cultural boundaries. Geometric boundaries are established on straight lines, usually based on longitude and latitude. A relic border is a border that no longer exists but has left an imprint on the cultural landscape.

Chapter 4.5

The function of political boundaries

Boundaries are an expression of political power and territoriality. They establish the land apportioned to a given governing body. Boundaries can also be used for sovereignty, division of cultures, and demilitarized zones. 

How are boundaries established?

Boundaries can be defined by a legal document, drawn on a map, marked with a physical object, or by management of a border through policy.

Maritime Boundaries

Maritime boundaries are used to solve disputes over international waters. Trade routes, fishing rights, etc., are all methods of solutions that have been created to solve conflicts over territorial claims—the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas (1982). Twelve nautical miles from the coast, one has complete sovereignty, and foreign ships are permitted under the principle of innocent passage. States are also entitled to an Exclusive Economic Zone, which gives them the right to natural resources within 200 miles of their coastline. States often agree to the median line principle, which sets a boundary midway between two or more states' coasts.

Chapter 4.6

Unnamed

Chapter 4.7

Types of govt.

Unitary states have power in a single power that rules over all the land

UN, NATO, EU, ASEAN, USMCA, THE ARTIC COUNCIL, L AFRICAN UNION

Season 2

The physical environment of a given region can influence the amount and type of crops grown. This relies on land being arable and the soil being nutrient-rich. The common trend observed is that areas with the same distance from the equator have similar environments and, thus, similarly grown crops. 

As mentioned, similar foods are grown in different climates. Mediterranean, tropical, cold mid-latitude, warm mid-latitude, grasslands/continental steppe, and sub-tropical.

Humans can alter the environment to improve farming productivity in a challenging area. For example, terrace farming, greenhouses, and irrigation are all methods of environmental possibilism used to shift our modes of farming based on the environment.

Economic factors can affect farming. Intensive farming focuses a lot of funding on a smaller or normal-sized plot of land to maximize efficiency and land use. This form of agriculture is usually near a large population center. Extensive farming uses less funding and labor over a larger plot of land. It is usually located away from a significant population center. For example, a ranch or farm in the Georgia countryside that allows cattle to roam over a large portion of land.
Market farming is a commercial farm that grows a small variety of fruits and vegetables. These crops are then taken to a market to be sold. Market farming is usually used to keep labor costs low. Mixed crop & livestock farming is used to fatten up livestock in a commercial setting.

Shifting cultivation occurs as the demand for food increases. Shifting cultivation also describes the changes in farming based on current events. Nomadic herding is a form of farming that entails nomads moving with groups of livestock. Usually, they held few personal possessions. 

Settlement types can also influence farming and society. Clustered settlements are historically groups of people focused on a given area where they share the land and build a local community. Dispersed settlements are isolated over a large or given plot of land where individuals are spread out. Linear settlements are organized along a line, such as a road or a physical feature like a river. 

Rural survey methods were the distribution of land. Using landmarks to define boundaries allowed for the division of land in un. Long lots were strips of land that were sold as property, useful in linear settlements. Township and range is the concept of dividing land into plots of land in a grid. 

Agricultural heaths are areas where people have begun to domesticate plants and animals. The fertile crescent was the first location where we learned about farming (barley, wheat, lentils, oats, and rye) and animals (sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs) around 10,000 years ago.. It is located along the Tigris in Euphrates, Mesopotamia. Around the same time in Southeast Asia, individuals started to learn about farming crops, sugarcane, taro, coconut, mango, bananas, grapefruit, rice, and tea. Indus River Valley discovers barley, cotton, wheat, and peas 9,000 years ago. 5,500 years ago, Central/MesoAmerica discover potatoes, maize, squash, peppers, and cassava. These hearths are independent on  each other even thought they were around the same time. Their environmental factors also affect their productivity and the types of crops they grow.

Agriculture also diffuses from its hearth. This diffusion was usually contagious and spread through contagious diffusions typical pattern. The Columbian Exchange also spread through the The Neolithic/Agricultural Revolution was the development of tools to improve farming production

The second agricultural revolution relied on technology and new/advanced farming methods. However, this revolution caused extreme shifts in urbanization and population. The second revolution adjusted crop rotation, which is when farmers rotate the kinds of crops they grow to increase yield and production based on the weather. 

The Green Revolution was during the 1950s-1960s and led to massive population growth. The Green Revolution relied on cross-breeding crops to improve its sustainability. The major figure of this revolution was Norman Borlaug. This development in agriculture encouraged further developments in technology, such as fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation techniques, new machinery, etc. Higher crop yields increased population growth, improved standard of living, technology development, boosted wealth/economics, and development in poorer countries. However, the environment took a heavy toll from pesticides and fertilizers, the land became overworked, and pollution increased. Countries that didn’t have climates hospitable to these new crops were unable to reap (😹) the benefits.

Subsistence agriculture 

Von Thune’s Model states that the further you are from a market the more you will pay for transportation.

Shifting cultivation is a practice that involves adaptation to the environment as a result of the introduction of new farming methods or crops. Farmers cultivate and use soil until it becomes infertile.

Slash and burn agriclture burns certain areas of land to “reset” the land, but this causes deforistation.

Terrafe farming uses layers against mountains for effective irrigation
Pastoral Nomadism is the migration of sheperads and their animals into new areas.

GMOS are crops that have been altered to yield more benefits such as higher production, more nutrient dense foods, and increased freshness. However, GMOs reduce biodiversity, force higher costs, and negative health effects. Many regulations have been released that limit GMO production
Aqua culture is a type of farming that uses aquatic fish and plants in an enclosure

Urban farming is essential for many areas with food desserts

Topic 4

Influence and Creation of the modern map

Decolonization and Independence

Decolonization involves the secession of colonizing states from their territories which makes new countries. However, some countries will force their way our of control from colonizing states to form their own new countries, this is called independence.

Treat of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles shows an example of how political events have influenced the borders and power of other countries as a result of WW2. The Ottoman Empire was split and led into the creation of Turkey.

Colonialism & Imperialism

These two forces can greatly shape the political boundaries and extent of certain nations around the world. Colonialism is the settlement of a country in foreign lands and spreading it power and culture. Imperialism is the extension of policy to foreign lands to take action.

Country Requirements

Characteristics of a state or body

States are don’t just follow a rigid set of requirements, they also have undefined traits that characterizes the country to be unique or just to be A country. Sovereignty is a state’s authority to control a territory and govern itself; this may be applicable to states that are within a unified country or new sates who are seeking authority or government. The people of a nation/state are within the political boundaries that have been set. Self-determination: the right of the people to govern themselves, similar to sovereignty. Lastly, devolution describes the shift of power from a central government to a local authority.

Country Requirements

To be considered a country, you must have a defined territory with a border, a permanent population, a governing body, sovereignty, and recognition from other states.

What is a nation?

A nation is a group of people with a common identity through culture, language, religion, ethnicity, or heritage. A nation-state, on the other hand, is when a nation's borders match those of a state, so the group of people with a common trait is within the confines of a state. A stateless nation is the opposite. A stateless nation is a group of people with a shared trait that doesn’t have a state to occupy. Another type of nation is a multistate nation. This type of nation consists of a group of people that live in more than one state. Differing from a multistate nation, a multinational state is a country that has various ethnicities and cultures within its national borders.

Topic 3

Topic 3.8

Assimilation

When a group of individuals abandons their original culture to adopt another, more dominant culture, it is usually forced, but it can also be voluntary. Few traits of their original culture remain.

Acculturation

When a minority trait adopts cultural traits of another (usually dominant) culture but continues to maintain its own culture, the cultures don’t mix and form new characteristics; they are still unique to both original cultures.

Syncretism

Two cultures with unique traits interconnect and form a new trait or culture. Traces of both original cultures remain, but most traits are unique.

Multiculturalism

Multiple cultures exist in a single environment and are all equally respected/celebrated. Some cultures may have more presence than others, but everyone is tolerated.

Econmies can benenfit with increased agrciltural production

Topic 3.7

Religion

World religions are split into two major groups, each with its characteristics that further categorize the faiths. The first is universalizing, which diffusions from the hearth through either expansion or relocation. These religions often spread through missionaries, who attempt to convert individuals regardless of their ethnic background. The second main form of religion is an ethnic religion. Most people are born rather than converted to the religion. As a result, they don’t usually attempt missions or conversions. The hearth is the center/origin of religion; this is important in understanding the route of diffusion. Although there are many ways they can spread, imperialism, the spread of religion through policy and diplomacy, and colonialism, the spread of religion through relocation and conversion, are the main two.

Language

Language families are groups of languages that have historic traits but aren’t necessarily related today—the biggest of these families is the Indo-European tree. The second largest is the Sino-Tibetan branch, with 1.4 billion speakers, and the concentration is primarily in East & SE Asia. After these larger families, divisions occur over time because of varying reasons. These divisions create branches such as Romantic and Germanic languages. Finally, languages can have many dialects or variations that may be super similar or completely different. Language is spread through trade, conquest, imperialism, colonization, and migration.

Topic 3.6

Globalization

Culture and technology spread to other regions without regard to borders or barriers, such as the internet, politics, economy, and urbanization.

Time-Space compressions/convergences

The shrinking of barriers as technology advances. Planes shortening gaps, phones improving communication, etc.

Cultural Convergence

The spread of cultures across the world to other countries

Loss of Culture

Many languages and cultural traits have been lost due to the heavy influence of significant cultures and modernization. Many traditional Indigenous languages have been lost as natives transition into modern society.

Cultural Divergence

Cultures are becoming less alike due to cultural and physical barriers.

Topic 3.3

Regional Patterns

Regional patterns of cultural identification factors can contribute to the cultural landscape of multiple states.

Topic 2

Topic 2.13-

Topic 2.12-

The economic impact of migration

• Migrants have a solid economic impact on their

  • Receiving Countries

    • Provide jobs in fields such as (Agriculture, construction, etc.)

    • They narrow the availability of jobs for locals

    • Immigrants often open business

    • Countries of Origin

      • Decreases in the unemployment rate

      • Less Strain on Resources

      • Loss of

Cultural impact of migration

• Migrants can have a strong impact on their

  • Receiving Countries

    • Create ethnic enclaves (Johns Creek)

    • Target of Prejudice

    • Source of Population Growth

      • Countries of Origin

        • Unbalanced sex ration

        • Dependency ration

        • Changes in cultural and traditional family sttrcuture

        • Overcrowding layoff

Political Impacts of Migration

• Migrants ****can have an impact on their

  Receiving Countries

Topic 2.11-

Types of Migration

Voluntary migration occurs when people migrate from their own choice and involuntary migration is when an individual(s) relocate due to fears of violence and survival.

Topic 2.10-

Ravenstein’s Law of Migration

1. Short distance

2. Occurs in steps

3. Urban areas attract rural citizens

4. Migration generates a counter-migration

5. You, singles, and adult males are more likely to migrate than females

6. Women usually migrate shorter distances

7. Most migrations are due to economic factors

What is migration?

Migration is the relocation of people from one place to another. Immigration is moving into a location and emigration is moving away from a location.

Push & Pull Factors

Push factors are negative conditions that PUSH you away from a location and pull factors are positive conditions that PULL you to a place

Examples: (Push) Job Loss, Lack of employment opportunities, and low wages. (Pull) Job opportunities, higher wages, and seasonal jobs.

Intervening Obstacle & Opportunities

Intervening obstacles are things that prevent you from getting to a location and an intervening opportunity causes someone to voluntarily stop.

Topic 2.7-

Pro-Natalist (Expansive) Population Policies

Government policies aiming to increase TFR accelerate population growth. Reasons for these Pro-Natalist include the need for an increasing workforce, prevention of population decline, and an aging population. Common Pro-Natalist policy usages are financial support (for families), propaganda, and other incentives such as the baby box.

Anti-Natalist Population Policies

In contrast to Pro-Natalist policies, Anti-Natalist policies are used to prevent rapid population growth. Reasons for these Anti-Natalist policies include a lack of resources to support a growing population, risk of national famine, and overpopulation. Common Anti-Natalist policy usages are the distribution and education of birth control, propaganda,

Topic 2.6-

Topic 2.5-

Topic 2.4-

Topic 2.3-

• Population Composition

  Population Composition describes the type and amount of people in a given area:

  • Age

  • Gender

  • Political Ideologies

  • Economic Status

  This affects a given area's political, economic, environmental, and social factors.

• Population Density

  The number of people in a given area, has effects on different aspects of local societies

• Population Distribution

  How people make up a given area. This impacts population density and society.

• Demographics

  The types of people in a given area, this is similar to population composition but this word is just used to describe the different types of groups.

• Dependency Ratio

  The number of people in the dependent age group is divided by the number of people in the work age group then multiplied by 100 to determine the amount of dependency required in a given society (0-15 and 65+)

Topic 2.2-

• Consequences of Population Distribution and Population Density

  Political

  1. The spread of political ideologies (composition of governmental beliefs)

  2. Variations in party advertising/collection of constituents

  3. Shifts in representation (U.S. House)

  4. Different governmental and political-spawned programs

  Environmental

  1. Affects the location of individuals

  2. Carrying capacity

  3. More efficient or overused land (depends)

  4. Higher pollution overall and higher pollution in

  5. Climate and agriculture shifts

  Social

  1. The variation of people in a given area can lead to different social principles

  2. Shift in primary family size based on the density of an area

Topic 2.1-

Population Distribution v. Density

Population Distribution is the pattern in which humans have settled and population density tracks the areas in which humans have settled most. There are 3 types of distribution/density

• Uniform- Spread evenly over a given area, medium density, possibility for a pattern

• Random- No pattern, varying, but usually low density

• Clumped- Definte pattern (usually for a hub), high density

Settlement Factors

There are 4 main factors that drive settlement patterns.

• Economic

  This factors is based on the local economy, job factors, or any other reasons that revolve around the economics of a given area.

• Social/Cultural

  The Social/Cultural factor unites people of similar ideologies, religious beliefs, or general practices to a given area.

• Political

  Domestic and international policies can dictate the settlement patterns of different regions. This may include fleeing from persecution or migrating to areas such as capital cities

• Environmental

  Optimal environments for settlements can also lead to clumped settlement patterns which greatly influence the stability of different regions in their access to natural resources.

Types of Density

• Below is a list that contains the descriptions and formulas for each type of density

  		Type Desc. Formula
  Arithmetic	This is the equivalent of population density and is used to show the amount of people in a given space.	Total pop./Land Area
  Physiological	Used to show the amount of people in a given amount of arable land, while not used as much, this form of density can be used to show the general carrying capacity	Total pop./Arable Land
  Agricultural	This form of density shows the amount of farmers or farm institutions in the amount of arable land present	Farmers/Arable Land

Topic 1

Topic 1.2 - Geographic Data

Topic 1.1 - Introduction to Maps

Map Projections and Distortions

The Mercator Map Projection

The Mercator map projection was produced in 1569 and soon became the first major map projection for navigation. Because the distortions were focused on the poles, you could draw a line from one of the main central continents to another central continent and this line would show the exact direction for travel. This distortion method preserved the right angles of longitude and latitude; however, this distortion among the poles inaccurately represented the true size of higher latitude locations.

The Gall-Peters Map Projection

The Gall-Peters projection was an alternative to the Mercator map as many believed that the increase in the size of predominately white countries such as Greenland and the shrinking of Africa showed domination from the white man. The Gall-Peters represent the proper area of each landmass and repositions many continents to their correct size. Where the Gall-Peters projection fails is highly distorting landmasses near the poles and vertically stretching continents near the equator.

The Robionson Map Projection

The final map projection is the Robinson projection. The Robinson projection was a compromise to the 2 previously popular map projections. The Robinson projection places most distortion around the East and West borders. This displays the true size of all landmasses and places minimal distortion on the continents.

Spatial Patterns on Maps and Types of Maps

When reading maps of any type different spatial patterns can appear that characterize different types of maps.