Philosophical Concepts from Socrates to Merleau-Ponty

Socratic Philosophy

  • Socrates (469-399 BC): "KNOW THYSELF"; emphasized the importance of self-examination.

  • Socratic elenchus: dialogue method of truth determination.

  • Knowledge is virtue; moral life is essential.

  • Dualism: distinction between soul (psuche) and body; soul’s aim is to return to the Divine.

Platonic Thought

  • Plato (427-347 BC): Follows Socrates; man is a soul imprisoned in a body.

  • Metempsychosis: transmigration of souls.

  • Allegory of the Cave: illustrates education's effect on human nature.

  • Ethics serve politics; philosopher's role to lead others towards the GOOD and contemplation of FORMS.

St. Augustine

  • (354-430 BC): Integrates Platonism with Christianity; soul > body.

  • Happiness is found in the love of God: "Our hearts are restless until they rest in thee."

  • Emphasizes obedience to the law of God.

René Descartes

  • (1596-1650): Founder of modern philosophy; aimed to establish secure knowledge.

  • Indubitable principles: knowledge that cannot be doubted.

  • Methodological doubt to form systematic philosophy; philosophical dualism acknowledged.

  • I think, therefore I am; existence of self questioned; possible solipsism.

David Hume

  • Hume's skepticism: certain knowledge limited to perception; self as a "bundle of perceptions."

  • Self as a habit formed by tracing actions to a source.

Immanuel Kant

  • Critique of Pure Reason: analysis of the limits of human knowledge.

  • Knowledge confined to phenomena (appearances) not noumena (things-in-themselves).

  • Necessary postulates of reason: God, self, freedom, immortality are assumed for a functioning life.

Gilbert Ryle

  • "I am, therefore I am": reductive view of human action; self as behavior patterns.

  • Rejected mind-body dualism; critique of "ghost in the machine" concept.

  • Category mistake: misuse of terminology in philosophical discourse.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty

  • Emphasized the connection of perception with mind and action.

  • Body as the seat of perception; structural interconnection between consciousness and object.

  • Human freedom as a structured interplay of control and uncontrollable elements.