The Enlightenment

“The Age of Reason” - 1600 and 1700s

THOMAS HOBBES: ENGLISH

• Supported Divine Right

• Believed that an Absolute Monarchy was the best form of government because people were violent and disorderly by nature

• Wrote Leviathan to support his theories

JOHN LOCKE: ENGLISH

• Believed that people were reasonable and moral, so they have the natural ability to govern themselves

• All people are born free and equal with three natural rights

  • Life, liberty, and property

• Believed that the purpose of a government was to protect those natural rights

  • If the government attempted to take those rights away, the citizens should overthrow the government

PHILOSOPHES

• French word for Philosopher

• Believed that people could apply reason to all aspects of life

SALONS

• Upper class “get togethers” to discuss enlightened ideas

• At the time books and pamphlets were censored due to the government of that time (probably a king or queen)

  • Didn’t want an enlightened idea about republics getting out so they would censor the books

VOLTAIRE

• Used satire in his writing

  • Targeted the Clergy, Aristocracy and government

• Candide: his most celebrated satire

• Served time twice in the Bastille

• Exiled to England and admired the English form of government

• Fled France in 1734 rather than returning to prison

• Defended freedom of speech

BARON DE MONTESQUIEU

• Separation of Power

  • Executive, legislative, judicial

• Checks and balances

• Believed in the rights of people

DENIS DIDEROT

• Compiled the Encyclopedia

MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT

• A Vindication of the Rights of Woman

• Supported equal education for both boys and girls

JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU

• A Philosophe who disagreed with many Enlightenment ideas

• Believed that civilization corrupts people’s natural goodness

• The Social Contract: an agreement among individuals to create a society and government

- LATIN AMERICAN - INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS

CAUSES

• Economic:

  • Mercantilism

  • Cash Crops

    • A crop produced for its commercial value rather than for use by the grower

    • Can lead to food shortages - not enough food grown to feed popular

  • Unfair distribution of wealth

• Social:

  • Rigid class structure

    • Difficult to move out of your social class; if you’re born into it, you stay there

• Political:

  • Colonial rule

  • Unfair distribution of power

THE ENLIGHTENMENT

• Government exists to protect the citizens’ natural rights of life, liberty, & property

•  If the government violates the natural rights of the people, the citizens have a right to revolt

THE AMERICAN AND FRENCH REVOLUTIONS

• The French and American Revolutions prove that Revolution is a legitimate means to bring about change

• Political upheaval and new Enlightened ideas dominate France

• Napoleonic Wars distract the European Powers attention away from their colonies

THE HAITIAN REVOLUTION

HAITI

• A French colony known as St. Dominique

• The first Latin American Colony to win its independence

• It started out as a slave rebellion because slaves outnumbered their masters by 500,000

TOUSSAINT L’OUVERTURE

• An ex-slave who emerged as the leader of the revolution

• 1802; French troops landed on St. Dominique and L’Ouverture promised to stop the fighting if the French would end slavery

• Accused of plotting another rebellion and imprisoned

  • Died in prison in April 1803

• January 1, 1804, Haiti was declared an independent country

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

The first to win independence

Started as a slave rebellion

French colony

MÉXICO

MIGUEL HIDALGO

• Highly educated Creole priest

• September 1810: El Grito de Dólares

  • Called upon his mestizo and indigenous parishioners to take up arms against the Spanish

  • Led an army toward Mexico City

  • Hidalgo never made it to the capital – He was captured and shot in 1811

JOSE MORELOS

• Mestizo Priests who took up the fight after Hidalgo

• Captured and executed in December 1815

AGUSTIN ITURBIDE

• Creole who declared independence for Mexico in 1821

• Proclaimed himself Emperor of Mexico

• 1824: Iturbide toppled and the Republic of Mexico was established

THE LIBERATOR: SIMON BOLIVAR

• Elite Creole planter -> Military General

• Called the “George Washington” of South America

• Known as the Liberator

  • Liberated territories of modern day Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia

• Wanted to create a powerful, unified Latin American State

JOSE DE SAN MARTIN

• Creole officer who had trained in European armies

• Liberated Argentina from Spanish control

• Met with Bolivar in 1822

  • Turned over command of his armies to Bolivar

BRAZIL

DOM PEDRO

• 1808: Napoleon’s troops invaded Portugal

  • The royal family fled to Brazil and ruled the Portuguese Empire from there

• After Napoleon’s defeat, Brazilians wanted their independence

• 1822: 8,000 Creoles signed a petition asking Dom Pedro to rue Brazil independently

• He agreed and Brazil had a Bloodless Revolution

CONCLUSION

• Most Latin American colonies won their independence by 1825

• Most of the independence movements were led by the Creoles

• Haiti was different because:

  • It was the first

  • It was the only French colony to revel

  • It was the only rebellion led by slaves

• Brazil was different because:

  • It was a Portuguese colony

  • It was a bloodless revolution

  • It became a monarchy

-FRENCH REVOLUTION- -AND NAPOLEON-

1789 - 1815 ~ Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity

INFLUENCE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT

• The Philosophes: Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu, and Rousseau believed that knowledge should be converted into reform

• Believed their task was to apply reason to society for the purpose of human improvement

CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

• The American Revolution: The concept of revolution was validated as a legitimate means to produce social and political change

• The French involvement increased the economic plight of the country

• The Aristocracy was trying to reassert the power they had lost under Louis XIV

• Cumulative Dissent with the Ancient Regime

  • The poor and middle classes suffered from an increasing tax burden

• 1786: the state was bankrupt

• The Assembly of Notables refused a new tax, and the parlements insisted that Louis call together the Estates General

• Louis agreed to allow each estate to choose its representative and to “Double the Third” (double the third estate’s number of representatives)

• 1788: bad harvests, unemployment and inflation led to the uprisings in the summer of 1789

THE ESTATES GENERAL ***

• The First Estate - The Clergy > 1% of the population

  • Dominated by Bishops and archbishops from the noble ranks

  • Generally wealthy and exempt from taxes

  • Owned 20% of the land

• The Second Estate - The Nobility - >2% of the population

  • Exempt from direct taxes

  • Owned 25% of the land

• The Third Estate - 98% of the population

  • Made up of peasants, the middle class, (Bourgeoisie), and urban workers (Sans Culottes)

  • Paid high taxes

  • Many owned the land they farmed

  • Not as concerned with political rights, but wanted relief from taxes

  • Owned 55% of the land

THE ROAD TO REVOLUTION

• May 5: Estates General convened

• June 17: The Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly

• June 20: Members of the Third Estate declared the Tennis Court Oath

• June 27: Louis forced the First and Second Estates to join the National Assembly

REVOLUTION OF 1789

• July 14: Storming of the Bastille

• Summer: The Great Fear - Émigrés (emigrants - French nobility)

• August 4: Decrees

• August 26: The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

• October: Women’s March on Versailles

1790 - 1791

• The Constituent Assembly

  • Write a new Constitution for France

  • Govern the nation in the process

    • Martial Law and censorship

• Civil Constitution of the Clergy

  • Clergy became salaried, elected officials who had to pledge their allegiance to the State

Monasteries and Convents were abolished

• The Church lands were sold

• The Pope’s authority was not recognized

CONSTITUTION OF 1791

• Limited Monarchy

  • The king's powers were restricted to a 3-year veto power over the Legislative Assembly

• July 20

  • The royal family was caught trying to flee the country

1791 - 1792

• Declaration of Pillnitz

  • Prussia and Austria seek to restore the French monarchy

• The Legislative Assembly declares war on Austria in April 1792 with disastrous results

  • The mood of the nation soured and many blamed Louis

• August 10

  • The royal family were driven from the Tuileries by an angry mob and imprisoned

• The National Convention, elected by Universal male suffrage, was summoned to create a Republic

THE RADICAL PHASE

• The National Convention abolished the monarchy and its calendar

  • Declared September 22, 1792, as Day one of Year I of the Republic

• July: Thermidore, November: Brumaire, June: Prairial

• January 21. 1793: After being tried for treason, Louis XVI was sent to the guillotine

• The National Convention split into 2 factions

  • Jacobins (Montagnards) - Radicals

  • Girondins - Moderates

THE TERROR

• Robespierre was elected to the Committee of Public Safety in July 1793

• Levee En Masse - call to arms for all French citizens to support the war effort

• 300,000 people were arrested and 40,000 executed in an attempted to eliminate all opposition and dissent

• Republic of Virtue: dress and decorative objects became a means for displaying political commitment

  • Liberty trees, Marianne (Goddess of Liberty), government organized festivals

• 9 Thermidor: On July 27th, Robespierre is denounced by the Committee of Public Safety and sent to the guillotine the next day

THE DIRECTORY

• Thermidorian Reaction:

  • Swing to the right after the fall of Robespierre

  • White Terror

• Constitution of 1795

  • Reinstated old system of electors

  • Electors chose the new Legislative Assembly

  • The Legislative Assembly chose a 5-member Directory

NAPOLEON BONAPARTE

• Under the Directory the economy suffered

• The war abroad was successful thanks to a brilliant young military general named Napoleon Bonaparte

  • He was a Corsican Noble

• Coup of 18 Brumaire

  • 1799- Napoleon staged a Coup d’etat to overthrow the Directory

• 1800: Consulate, Bank of France established

• 1801: Concordat of 1801, Slave Rebellion in Haiti

• 1802-03: Consul for Life, Peace of Amiens, Louisiana Purchase

• 1804: Civil Code of 1804, Coronation as Emperor

• 1805: Defeated at Trafalgar

  • British counter blockade prevented trade between the Americas and Europe 

    • Context for War of 1812

• 1806: Continental System, Holy Roman Empire abolished

• 1807: Treaty of Tilsit with Russia

NAPOLEON’S THREE (3) COSTLY MISTAKES

1. Continental System

• Naval blockade between Great Britain and Europe

2. Peninsula War - 1808

• Spanish Guerillas attacked French troops en route to Portugal

  • Guerilla - little war; sneak-attack type war

  • Not waged by people in the military

3. Invasion of Russia - 1812

• Lost half a million troops to the scorched-Earth policy and the Russian winter

  • Scorched-Earth Policy: Russians would burn land that the French were coming to, rather than fight them

  • Attempt to lure the French deeper into Russia, leaving them ill-prepared for the Russian winter - starving troops

NAPOLEON’S DOWNFALL

• Weakened army could not defeat the Fourth Coalition (Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Britain)

• October 1813: Battle of Nations (Leipzig)

• April 4, 1814: Napoleon was forced to abdicate (step down from the throne) and was exiled to Elba

• Bourbon Restoration: Louis XVIII takes 

  • Bourbon Dynasty returned to power; absolute monarchy restored

• France returned to 1792 borders

THE HUNDRED DAYS

• March 1815: Napoleon returned to France with much support

• Battle of Waterloo: June 15th, 1815, Napoleon’s troops are defeated by the Duke of Wellington

• Napoleon is exiled to the Island of St. Helena where he died in 1821

CONGRESS OF VIENNA, 1814 - 1815

• Prussia, Russia Austria, Britain (the Fourth Coalition), and France

  • Fourth Coalition mainly 

• Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria presided

• Attempt to restore Europe to what it was prior to Napoleon and the French Revolution; every country was independent, had their own power, balance of power

• 3 principles:

  • Compensation

    • Fourth Coalition should be compensated by the French for defeating them

  • Legitimacy *

    • Restoring the legitimate rulers to power throughout Europe

  • Balance of Power

19TH CENTURY NATIONALISM

NATIONALISM

• A desire for self-rule

• A feeling and pride in and devotion to one’s country

  • Develops among people who may share a common language, history, set of traditions, or goals

• Often causes people to join together to choose their own form of government without outside interference

  • Leads to breaking up of empires

• Revolution and war in the 1790s created a strong sense of national unity in France

  • This feeling inspired French armies to success on the battlefield as they spread the ideals of their revolution

• Can be either a unifying force (as seen in the unification of Italy and Germany) or a destructive force, leading to revolutions and the breakup of empires

REVOLUTIONS

GREECE

• In 1821, nationalists in Greece revolted against the Ottoman Empire

• Britain, France, and Russia (Quadruple Alliance + Prussia) gave support to Greece

  • Quadruple Alliance was Christian like the Greeks; Ottomans were Muslim

• Greece won its independence from the Ottomans in 1829 under the Treaty of Adrianople

POLAND

• Nationalists in Poland revolted in 1830

  • Their revolution was crushed by Russian forces under Tsar Nicholas I

BELGIUM

• Nationalists in Belgium wanted to separate themselves from the Dutch

• Won their independence in 1831

REVOLUTIONS OF 1848

• Revolutions occurred in parts of the Austrian Empire, Italy, and Germany

• Throughout the continent of Europe, people sought to develop unified, independent nation-states

UNIFICATION OF ITALY

• Ever since the fall of the Roman Empire in the 400s, Italy had been divided into many small states

• After Napoleon invaded Italy, he united some of the Italian states into the Kingdom of Italy

• The Congress of Vienna re-divided Italy and put much of it under Austrian or Spanish control

THREE LEADERS OF ITALIAN UNIFICATION

GIUSEPPE MAZZINI: “THE SOUL”

• Formed Young Italy - a nationalist movement

• His writings and speeches provided the inspiration for the unification of Italy

COUNT CAMILLO DI CAVOUR: “THE BRAINS”

• Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia

• Formed alliances with France and Prussia

• Used war to drive Austrians from Italy

GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI: “THE SWORD”

• Soldier who led the “Red Shirts” to win control of southern Italy and helped it unite with the north

A UNIFIED ITALY: 1861

• Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia was crowned king of a united Italy

• The Catholic Church resisted the new government

UNIFICATION OF GERMANY

• In the early 1800s, most German speaking people lived in small states to which they felt loyalty

• During Napoleon’s conquests, feelings of nationalism stirred in those Germans who wanted to be free of French rule

• After Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, some nationalists called for a unified Germany

  • Metternich, however, blocked the idea at the Congress of Vienna

• Zollverein: Prussia set up a trade union among German states in the 1830s

OTTO VON BISMARCK

• 1862:  appointed Chancellor of Prussia 

• Guided German unification

• “Blood and Iron”

  • “Not by speeches and votes of the majority, are the great questions of the time decided — that was the error of 1848 and 1849 — but by iron and blood.”   

• Bismarck believed that Germany would be united through war and industrialization

THREE WARS

• Danish War (1864)

  • Prussia allied with Austria to gain more land from Denmark

• Austro-Prussian War (1866)

  • Prussia turned against Austria to gain more land, winning in just seven weeks (Seven Weeks War)

  • United some Germanic states with Prussia into the North German Confederation

• Franco-Prussian War (1868-1870)

  • Bismarck used Propaganda to begin a war with France (Ems Dispatch)

  • Prussia defeated France and the German states agreed to unite with Prussia

  • Germany annexed the disputed provinces of Alsace-Lorraine

A UNIFIED GERMANY: 1871

• The German states united under the Prussian king William I

• William took the title of Kaiser

  • Kaiser: Caesar or emperor

NAPOLEON III

• In 1848, Louis Napoleon became the President of the Second Republic in France

• As the nephew of Napoleon I, many thought he would bring stability to France

• On December 2, 1851, Louis Napoleon seized power after an attempted Socialist Coup d‘etat

  • Staged a plebiscite to extend his term to 10 years

• December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon proclaimed the 2nd Empire in France and named himself Napoleon III

• Napoleon III modernized water and sanitation systems, built wide, tree-lined avenues, monumental public buildings, parks and Railroad terminals

  • Supported the construction of the Suez Canal

• Supported Italian Unification

• Exiled after the French defeat in the Franco- Prussian War

ZIONISM

• The rise of nationalism in Europe led to an intensification of anti-Semitism in the late 1800s

• As anti-Semitism grew, some Jews moved to Palestine, the ancient Jewish homeland

THE DREYFUS AFFAIR

• Alfred Dreyfus was a captain in the French army

• In 1894 papers made it appear that a French military officer was providing secret information to the German government

  • Dreyfus came under suspicion

• Despite his protestations of innocence he was found guilty of treason in a secret military court-martial

  • He was denied the right to examine the evidence against him during it

• The army stripped him of his rank in a humiliating ceremony

  • Shipped him off to life imprisonment on Devil’s Island

    • A penal colony located off the coast of South America

• “The Affair” might have ended then but for the determined intervention of the novelist Émile Zola, who published his denunciation (“J’accuse!”) of the army cover-up in a daily newspaper

THEODOR HERZL

• A young journalist alarmed by the strong anti-Semitism he witnessed in France after the Dreyfus Affair

• Herzl called for Jews to establish their own state

• Herzl’s writings helped to build Zionism, the movement devoted to building a Jewish state in Palestine.

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

OVERVIEW

• A long, slow process during which machines replaced hand tools and new sources of power replaced human and animal power in the production of goods

• What were these new sources of power?

  • Water

  • Coal

  • Steam

  • Electricity

AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION

• New farming techniques led to an increase in the food supply which led to an increase in population

• 1701 Seed Drill: Jethro Tull

• Crop Rotation: Charles “Turnip” Townshend

ENCLOSURE MOVEMENT

• 1760-1815: Parliament enclosed 6 million acres of communal land

  • The Commons

URBANIZATION

• The Agricultural Revolution led to the need for less people to work on the farms

  • Therefore: they moved to the cities in search of work

WHY DID IT BEGIN IN GREAT BRITAIN?

NATURAL RESOURCES

• Water: Provided power for the machines and transportation of goods and raw material

• Coal:  Great Britain has a tremendous amount of coal to fuel the machines 

STABLE ECONOMY

• Great Britain had an available supply of capital 

STABLE GOVERNMENT

• The Glorious Revolution of 1688 brought peace and prosperity to Great Britain after 85 years of confusion

LABOR

• The Enclosure Movement left millions with no way to earn a living

• The Agricultural Revolution led to a population explosion which meant more available workers

THE SPREAD OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

• Belgium:

  • Belgium had rich deposits of iron and coal, as well as water for transportation

  • In 1799, William Cockerill smuggled the plans for the Spinning Jenny into Belgium

• Germany:

  • The political and economic division of Germany led to pockets of industrialization

  • These pockets were linked by a railroad line

IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

• Inequality:

  • Widened the gap between the Rich and Poor or the Have and Have Nots

• Imperialism:

  • Exploitation of colonial resources and colonial peoples

FIRST PHASE

• The First Phase of the Industrial Revolution culminated in 1820 with the steam engine being used in the locomotive

  • Brought the use of coal and steam together

TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIETY

Population, health and wealth rose dramatically

CLASSES

Middle Class:

• Bankers, Lawyers, Merchants, Clerks, Managers and Teachers

• Superrich:

  • Successful owners of RR’s, Mines and factories

• Working Class:

  • 10-14 Hour Days

  • No ventilation (Lint, Dust, fumes)

  • Pneumonia and TB were rampant

  • Women and children were desirable because they could be paid less and were more nimble

  • No school

  • Children were often crippled from heavy and dangerous work

• Lowell Girls: (Mill Girls)

  • Offered independence to young unmarried women

  • Lived in boarding houses

• Luddites: 

  • Workers who raged against the machine

  • Called Luddites after the fictitious Ned Lud

• The Deserted Village:  

  • Oliver Goldsmith poem about the popular sense of alienation and bitterness brought about by the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions

CITIES

• Human and industrial waste contaminated water supplies, spreading disease

• Poor Laws 1834:

  • Made poverty a crime and a sin

  • Assumed that unemployment and destitution were the result not of low wages but of personal idleness and the unwillingness to work

  • Paupers were herded into workhouses and families were split up

  • Those who died paupers were denied a church burial

UNIONIZATION AND REFORM

• Combination Acts 1799 and 1800: Forbade workers from organizing for any purpose

• Unions:  Workers join together to push for reforms in the workplace

• Collective Bargaining: Negotiations

• Strike: The refusal to work; this is only an effective tool for skilled workers

REFORM LAWS

• Factory Acts of 1833:

  • Illegal to hire children under the age of 9

  • Children 9-12: could not work more than 8 hours a day

  • 13-17: no more than 12 hours a day

• Mines Act of 1842:

  • Women and children were prohibited from working in the mines 

  • This was more to protect jobs for the men than for the protection of women and children

• Ten Hours Act:

  • Limited the workday for women and children to 10 hours a day

  • This was so that women could still attend to their domestic duties

• Abolition of Slavery:

  • Great Britain became the first industrialized nation to abolish slavery  

  • This was because it was cheaper to hire workers than to take care of slaves

INDUSTRIAL REV INVENTIONS

SEED DRILL

• Jethro Tull

• 1701

• England

• Digs and plants seeds in a row

• More Crops

CROP ROTATION

• Charles “Turnip” Townshend

• 1730’s

• England

• Rotated crops that grow above the ground with crops that grow below

• More crops

FLYING SHUTTLE

• John Kay

• 1733

• England

• The shuttle could be mechanized

• Doubled the capacity of the loom and led to the need for more thread

SPINNING JENNY

• James Hargreaves

• 1764

• England

• Wove several spindles of thread at once

• Supply of thread could keep up with the Flying Shuttle

WATER FRAME

• Richard Arkwright

• 1769

• England

• Utilized the power of water to power the spinning jenny

• Increased thread supply

MINER’S FRIEND

• Thomas Newcomen

• 1712

• England

• Steam Powered Pump

• Pumped water out of the mines allowing for miners to go deeper

STEAM ENGINE CONDENSER

• James Watt

• 1760’s

• Scotland (part of Great Britain)

• Cooled the steam that wasn’t used

• Made the steam engine more efficient by preventing explosions

POWER LOOM

• Edmund Cartwright

• 1780’s

• England

• Used steam to power the loom

• Increased the supply of cloth

COKE BLAST FURNACE SMELTING

• Abraham Darby

• 1709

• England

• Used coke (a byproduct of coal) to separate iron from its ore

• Stronger iron for heavy utensils and munitions

ECONOMIC SYSTEMS OF THE 19TH CENTURY

CAPITALISM

• Laissez-Faire: French term meaning “let-do”

  • Supporters of Laissez-faire economics felt that people should be able to buy, sell, hire, and fire without government interference

  • A hands-off approach to economics

    • Leaders of the Industrial Revolution who believed in Laissez-faire were owners of the railroads, factories, and mines

• Adam Smith:

  • Wrote An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of The Wealth of Nations (1776)

THOMAS MALTHUS AND ‘OVERPOPULATION’

• For Malthus: there is no such thing as overpopulation

  • Population cannot exceed food supply

• Malthus argued that population was always already checked, or limited, by food production

• These ‘checks’ to population took the form of poverty, sickness, plagues, and even famine

SOCIALISM

• The belief that the means of production (land, labor, capital, and factories) should be owned and operated by society

• Wealth should be equally distributed among citizens

• Karl Marx: German philosopher who set out to provide a scientific basis for socialism

• History advanced through conflict and economics were a basis for this change

• Classes:

  • Bourgeoisie: ruling class; controlled production

  • Proletariat: working class; the true productive class, according to Marx

    • Name has Latin origins; translates to “nothing but children”

      • They were so poor that they had nothing but their children

MARX’S BELIEFS

• The only way to get the ruling class to give up their power was by revolution

  • This made conflict between the classes inevitable

• The proletariat would build a society where people owned everything

  • Class distinctions would then disappear, making a “classless society”

SOCIALISM -> COMMUNISM

• COMMUNISM: the last stage of socialism, where each individual would find true fulfillment

  • “From each according to his ability, to each, according to his need.”

• A true socialist society, where the need for government would “wither away”

THE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO 1848 - KARL MARX AND FRIEDRICH ENGELS

• “Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communist Revolution.  The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains.  They have a world to win.  Working Men of all countries, unite!”