Psychology: Overview and History (Ch 1-7)
Case studies and opening questions: memory, memory formation, and perception
Clive Waring: musician who lost ability to form new memories at age 46; can remember piano skills but not recent meals. Illustrates dissociation between procedural memory (skill-based) and episodic memory (new events).
James Waterton: experiences a taste sensation associated with the sound of words; cross-modal sensory experiences (synesthesia) highlighted.
The text asks: Why do these experiences occur? How does the brain’s internal processing relate to outward behavior?
John Nash: brilliant mathematician who developed schizophrenia; reported delusions (coded messages from extraterrestrials) and auditory hallucinations; later portrayed in A Beautiful Mind. Points to the brain’s internal processes and how they produce abnormal external behavior.
Takeaway: psychology investigates the mind–brain–behavior relationship and how internal processes map to outward actions, thoughts, and experiences.
What is psychology? science, method, and scope
Psychology asks questions about mind and behavior (e.g., prejudice, consciousness): scientific study of the mind and behavior.
Psychologists use the scientific method to acquire knowledge.
Scientific method steps: propose a tentative explanation (a hypothesis) that fits within a broader theory; test via observations/experiments; publish or present results for replication and extension.
A hypothesis must be testable and measurable; abstract ideas like happiness in a bird are not directly testable, whereas brain states or observable behaviors can be measured.
Psychology is empirical: based on measurable data; science focuses on matter and energy and their interactions; thoughts themselves are not directly measurable as physical entities.
Limitations: science explains how the mind works but cannot directly address morality or metaphysical questions; some domains involve non-material aspects.
Psychology as a discipline emerged in the late 19th century as a distinct science from philosophy.
Relationship to other sciences: some areas resemble natural sciences (biology, neurobiology); psychology is also a social science because behavior is influenced by social interactions.
Why study psychology: personal growth, helping others, general education requirements, or career preparation (nursing, pre-med, etc.).
Popular majors and notable figures: psychology is a common major; examples of famous psychology majors include Mark Zuckerberg, Jon Stewart, Natalie Portman, Wes Craven.
Education statistics: about 6 ext{%} of all bachelor degrees in the US are in psychology (approximate figure cited). Associated with development of critical thinking, scientific literacy, and understanding of biology–environment interactions.
The field emphasizes critical thinking: skepticism, awareness of biases, logic, appropriate questions, and observation.
History and foundational ideas in psychology: roots and major paradigms
Psychology’s young status; experimental roots in the 19th century; earlier inquiries were philosophical.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920): founder of psychology as a science; established the first psychology lab at Leipzig in 1879; authored Principles of Physiological Psychology (1873).
Focus: psychology as scientific study of conscious experience; analyze components of consciousness and how they combine to form experience.
Method: introspection (internal perception) and reaction-time measurement; used specialized instruments to time responses to stimuli (light, image, sound).
Voluntarism: free will; participants should know the intentions of experiments; experimental introspection emphasized.
Limitations: introspection was subjective with low cross-subject agreement; led to later methodological critiques.
Wundt’s influence: lab-based measurement and culture study (Volker Psychology, 1904) prefigured broader psychology including cultural aspects.
Student Edward Titchner developed Structuralism (focus on contents of mental processes).
Reaction-time experiments could measure responses down to the millisecond; Wundt could measure to 1 imes 10^{-3} ext{s}.
Functionalism: William James, John Dewey, and Charles Sanders Peirce emphasized the function of mental processes and adaptation to the environment; influenced by Darwin’s natural selection.
Focus: how mental activities help an organism adapt to its environment; operation of the whole mind rather than isolated elements (opposed to structuralism).
James used introspection but also objective measures (recordings, anatomy, physiology).
Freud and psychoanalytic theory: Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) emphasized the unconscious mind as a repository of hidden feelings and urges; access via dream analysis, slips of the tongue, and free associations.
Core ideas: unconscious influences on behavior; early childhood experiences shape adult motivations and personality.
Psychoanalysis: method of talking through experiences; still used in some modern psychotherapies, though many ideas are controversial and have evolved.
Contemporary relevance: unconscious aspects of self and relationships persist in psychotherapy; ongoing debate about empirical support.
Gestalt psychology: Wertheimer, Köhler, and Kohler introduced Gestalt psychology (early 20th century): the whole perception matters more than the sum of parts.
Core idea: perception is organized in wholes; parts relate to each other within a larger structure (the whole is different from the sum of its parts).
Example: a melody emerges from combinations of notes, not just individual notes in isolation.
German roots; emigrated to the US; influenced modern perception and cognitive science; influenced later humanistic approaches, while US behaviorism later overshadowed some Gestalt influence.
Behaviorism: Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner emphasized observable behavior and environmental determinants; the mind was considered unobservable and not a proper subject for science.
Pavlov: classical conditioning; a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus (food) to elicit a response (salivation). Demonstrated via conditioned reflexes.
Watson: behaviorism; focus on observable behavior; argued psychology should study behavior instead of consciousness; favored animal models to generalize to humans.
Tolman: argued cognitive aspects could be studied in rats; “I believe everything important in psychology… can be investigated through continued analysis of the determiners of rat behavior at a maze’s choice point.”
Skinner: operant conditioning; reinforcement and punishment shape behavior; Skinner Box (operant conditioning chamber) used to study how consequences influence behavior.
Impact: established psychology as a rigorous science through measurable, observable phenomena; influenced education, therapy (behavioral therapy, CBT), and organizational practices.
Humanism: reaction against determinism of Freud and reductionism of behaviorism; emphasizes inherent goodness and potential for growth.
Maslow: hierarchy of needs; motivation driven by needs from basic survival to higher-level self-actualization; emphasized positive aspects of human nature.
Rogers: client-centered therapy; therapist shows unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy; client leads the session; therapy focused on the client’s self-directed growth.
Humanistic psychology stimulated diverse qualitative and quantitative research on well-being, self-concept, and therapeutic outcomes; continues to influence psychotherapy.
The Cognitive Revolution: mid-20th century shift back toward mind and mental processes due to limits of behaviorism and the rise of interdisciplinary input (linguistics, neuroscience, computer science).
Key figures: Noam Chomsky criticized behaviorism’s neglect of language and internal mental processes; argued that mental functions should be studied and modeled.
Ulrich Neisser published the first Cognitive Psychology textbook (1967), catalyzing the formal discipline.
Cognitive science emerged as an interdisciplinary field combining psychology with linguistics, anthropology, computer science, neuroscience, and more; mind as information-processing system.
Feminist psychology, multicultural psychology, and WEIRD critique: psychology historically biased toward Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic populations; theories and methods often reflect white male perspectives.
Naomi Weisstein (1968) argued psychology’s biases and called for feminist critique and reform; highlighted gender, cultural biases, and testing limitations.
Feminist psychology advocates re-evaluating contributions of women in psychology, studying gender differences, and addressing biases.
Multicultural and cross-cultural psychology examine how culture and environment shape behavior; WEIRD critique shows that much psychological research is not representative of global populations; cautions against overgeneralizing findings across cultures.
Sumner (1920): Francis Cecil Sumner, first African American to receive a PhD in psychology in the US; Howard University program; challenged educational inequities.
Contributions from diverse populations: Martha Bernal (first Latina PhD in psychology) and Inez Beverly Prosser (African American woman PhD) advanced education and testing reform; George I. Sanchez criticized language and cultural barriers in testing (Mexican American children).
Clark and Clark: Mamie Phipps Clark and Kenneth Clark studied doll preferences among African American children; their work informed Brown v. Board of Education desegregation efforts and social services.
Professional organizations and diversity in psychology: APA (54 divisions) with a broad representation; APS (founded 1988) to emphasize scientific orientation; Ethnic-based associations (e.g., National Latina Psychological Association, Asian American Psychological Association, Association of Black Psychologists, Society of Indian Psychologists).
Early influential figures and institutions: G. Stanley Hall, first APA president; Hall’s work at Clark University; the APA’s evolution; the APS’s role in advancing scientific psychology.
Subfields and major divisions of modern psychology
Biopsychology / Neuroscience and Evolutionary Psychology
Biopsychology studies how biology influences behavior; nervous system structure and function; aims to link brain processes to behavior; integrates neuroscience with psychology.
Neuroscience is the broader interdisciplinary field; biopsychology is a component focusing on behavior and brain mechanisms.
Evolutionary psychology examines how genetic factors and natural selection shape behavior; behaviors may be adaptive in ancestral environments; caution about extrapolating to modern contexts.
Darwin’s work (The Descent of Man, 1871; The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 1872) stimulated thinking about the adaptive value of behavior.
Examples include memory, mate choice, kin relationships, cooperation, parenting, social structure, and status; attempts to predict behavior in specific situations and test against expectations; acknowledge difficulties proving genetic causation.
Sensation and Perception
Studies how sensory information is processed and interpreted; emphasizes interdisciplinary research across biology, psychology, and neuroscience.
Perception is not a simple sum of sensations; influenced by attention, past experiences, and culture; perception involves interpretation and construction of experience.
Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Science
Focus on mental processes: attention, memory, problem solving, language, and decision making.
Broad, interdisciplinary; cognitive science encompasses psychology, linguistics, computer science, anthropology, neuroscience, and more.
Developmental Psychology
Studies lifespan development: physical maturation, cognitive development, moral reasoning, social behavior, and other psychological attributes.
Piaget’s work on object permanence: understanding that objects exist even when hidden; infants display lack of permanence that develops with age; the exact age of permanence is debated.
Population aging: demographic shifts with increasing numbers of older adults; projections suggest growth from tens of millions to hundreds of millions over decades; e.g., from around 40{,}000{,}000 aged 65+ in 2010 to 55{,}000{,}000 by 2020 in the US; older population growth continues beyond.
Personality Psychology
Studies patterns that make individuals unique; early theorists (e.g., Freud) emphasized unconscious conflicts; modern approaches focus on personality traits.
Five-Factor Model (Big Five): conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion; traits are relatively stable over the lifespan and show genetic influences; represented as ext{Big Five} = ext{(Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness, Extraversion)}.
Social Psychology
Investigates how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.
Classic study: Milgram obedience experiments (1961) showed many participants willing to administer what they believed were lethal shocks under authority pressure; about frac{2}{3} ext{ of participants} complied to some extent.
Ethical considerations emerged: deception, potential harm, and the development of ethical guidelines requiring informed consent and minimizing harm.
Industrial/Organizational Psychology (IO)
Applies psychology to workplace issues: personnel decisions, organizational structures, and workplace environment to improve productivity and working life.
Health Psychology
Applies biopsychosocial model to health outcomes; studies how biology, behavior, and socio-cultural factors influence health; explores interventions and public policy to improve health.
Sport and Exercise Psychology
Examines psychological factors affecting sport performance and well-being; also applies to high-stress/professional settings (e.g., firefighting, military, surgery).
Clinical and Counseling Psychology
Clinical psychology focuses on diagnosing and treating psychological disorders; counseling psychology emphasizes emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in psychologically healthy individuals.
Psychoanalytic and humanistic traditions informed clinical practice; cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) grew from behaviorism and cognitive revolutions; various therapies integrate these roots.
Forensic Psychology
Applies psychology to legal contexts: competency assessments, mental state at the time of offense, child custody, eyewitness testimony, and expert testimony in court.
Forensic psychologists may serve as consultants, expert witnesses, or evaluators; requires understanding of law in addition to psychology.
Education, careers, and pathways in psychology
Academic path to careers in universities and research institutions
Most research and university teaching positions require a PhD (dissertation defended before a committee). Typically 5–6 years of graduate study post-bachelor’s.
PhD holders often engage in teaching, research, and service; time allocations vary by institution and role.
Postdoctoral training is common for new PhDs to develop research programs before securing a tenure-track position.
Alternative doctoral path for clinical practice: PsyD
PsyD emphasizes clinical practice and applied psychology over research; less emphasis on dissertation; licensure often requires supervised postdoctoral work.
Licensure requirements vary by state and may include postdoctoral supervision and passing a licensure exam.
Roles of adjuncts, instructors, and non-tenure-track faculty
Adjunct faculty: advanced degrees (often master’s or PhD) who teach part-time; many have primary careers outside academia.
Some positions at two-year colleges or teaching-focused institutions require master’s degrees; Doctoral degrees also held by some adjuncts.
Clinical and counseling practice settings
Licensed Clinical or Counseling Psychologists can provide psychotherapy and psychological testing; differentiate from psychiatrists who hold MDs and can prescribe medications.
Some psychologists specialize in specific areas (e.g., biopsychology, forensics, school psychology) and may work in hospitals, private practice, schools, or industry.
Licensing and credentialing
Most clinical/counseling paths require a doctoral degree (PhD or PsyD), supervised postdoctoral experience, and passing a licensure examination.
Some states have begun to loosen postdoctoral requirements to allow earlier practice in certain settings; regulatory changes vary by jurisdiction.
Careers with master’s degrees
Masters-level psychology roles include licensed professional counselors, school psychologists in some regions, industrial consultants, and certain clinical-support positions.
A bachelor’s in psychology is valuable to a range of careers (case management, sales, human resources, teaching); the degree supports analytical and communication skills attractive to employers.
Interdisciplinary and real-world relevance
Psychology hires span educational settings, healthcare, criminal justice, military, industry, and nonprofit sectors.
The field values interdisciplinary collaboration (neuroscience, linguistics, anthropology, computer science) as part of cognitive science and related areas.
Ethical and societal implications
Historical biases in psychology prompted feminist and multicultural critiques; ongoing attention to representation, culture, and the impact of research on diverse communities.
Studies like Milgram highlight ethical concerns about deception and participant welfare; modern research emphasizes informed consent and minimizing harm.
Key figures and concepts to remember (quick reference)
Wilhelm Wundt: founder of psychology as a science; laboratory methods; reaction-time studies; introspection; voluntarism.
William James: functionalism; psychology as the study of the function of behavior; adaptation and the whole mind;
Sigmund Freud: unconscious mind, psychoanalysis, early childhood influences on personality.
Gestalt psychologists: whole-perception emphasis; useful for perception research.
Ivan Pavlov: classical conditioning; learned associations; reflexes.
John B. Watson: behaviorism; focus on observable behavior; rejection of internal mental states.
B. F. Skinner: operant conditioning; reinforcement and punishment; Skinner Box.
Abraham Maslow: hierarchy of needs; self-actualization.
Carl Rogers: client-centered therapy; unconditional positive regard, genuineness, empathy.
Noam Chomsky: language and mind; critique of behaviorism; helped spark cognitive revolution.
Stanley Milgram: obedience to authority; ethical debates; significance for research ethics.
Mamie Phipps Clark and Kenneth Clark: doll studies; contributed to Brown v. Board of Education.
Francis Cecil Sumner: first African American PhD in psychology; Howard University.
Margaret Floy Washburn: first woman with PhD in psychology; The Animal Mind.
Mary Whiton Calkins: memory research; denied PhD by Harvard; early female pioneer.
Mary Cover Jones: Little Peter study on conditioned fear; related to Little Albert study.
G. Stanley Hall: first president of the APA; influential early organizer in psychology.
American Psychological Association (APA): 54 divisions; broad professional organization.
Association for Psychological Science (APS): founded 1988 to emphasize scientific orientation.
WEIRD critique: Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic populations; cautions about generalizing findings.
Core divisions today: Biopsychology, Evolutionary Psychology, Sensation & Perception, Cognitive, Developmental, Personality, Social, IO, Health, Sport & Exercise, Clinical & Counseling, Forensic.
Connections to broader themes and real-world relevance
Mind–brain–behavior nexus: case studies illustrate how neural processes give rise to memory, perception, and thought patterns; clinical cases show how brain dysfunction can alter behavior.
Scientific method as engine of psychology: hypotheses tested via controlled observations and experiments; replication and peer review ensure reliability and growth of knowledge.
Interdisciplinarity: modern psychology thrives on collaboration with biology, neuroscience, linguistics, anthropology, computer science, and philosophy.
Social responsibility and ethics: progress in psychology depends on ethical research practices and inclusive, culturally aware theories and methods.
Practical impact: from education policy (doll studies used in desegregation cases) to clinical therapies (CBT, client-centered therapy) and workplace improvements (IO psychology).
Formulas and numerical references (quick reference)
Millisecond reaction-time precision in Wundt’s lab: 1 imes 10^{-3} ext{ s}
Obedience study result: nearly two thirds of participants complied with the authority instruction: frac{2}{3} ext{ (approximately 0.666…)}
Big Five personality traits: ext{Conscientiousness}, ext{Agreeableness}, ext{Neuroticism}, ext{Openness}, ext{Extraversion}
Population aging data (US): 40{,}000{,}000 aged 65+ in 2010; 55{,}000{,}000 by 2020; and projected to reach 90{,}000{,}000 by 1950 in some demographic projections mentioned.
APA divisions: 54 divisions within the organization.
The WEIRD acronym: ext{Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic}