★★ TECHNICAL WRITING - A type of writing where the author is writing about a particular subject that requires direction, instruction, or explanation.

THREE GOALS OF TECHNICAL WRITING
• Give information
• Analyse events and their implications
• Persuade and influence decisions

CHARACTERISTICS OF TECHNICAL WRITING
Clarity - Say what you mean and only what you mean, keeping the reader in mind, and avoiding unnecessarily complicated words.
Example: Standard Pressure and Volume (STP)
Comprehensive - A comprehensive technical document has all the necessary information. Readers who must act on a document need to be able to apply the information efficiently and effectively. When writing technically, all the information should be provided, its background must be described and a clear description of any process, or method of carrying out specific work, should also be given.
Consistency - Consistency is formatting the document properly.
Coherence - Coherence in writing is the logical bridge between words, sentences, and paragraphs. Coherent writing uses devices to connect ideas within each sentence and paragraph. Main ideas and meaning can be difficult for the reader to follow if the writing lacks coherence
Correctness - Correctness in technical writing is the use of proper grammar punctuation and spelling.
Conciseness - "Expressing oneself in the fewest number of words while retaining completeness in meaning. "

TECHNICAL WRITING PROCESS
1. Identify the target audience
2. Determine the objective
3. Gather information on your topic
4. Organise the collected data
5. Edit, revise, and finalize your written output

OUTPUTS OF TECHNICAL WRITING
Abstract: Summary of a research article, thesis, and review.
Graphic Aids: Involves the use of pictures, videos, charts, or internet material
Memorandum: A written message in business or diplomacy
Instructional Manual: Instructional book or booklet that is supplied with almost all technologically advanced consumer products such as vehicles, and home appliances.

COMPARING TECHNICAL AND NON-TECHNICAL WRITING
✓ The purpose of non-technical writing is to entertain people while that of technical writing is to convey information to readers
✓ In Technical Writing, we eliminate technical jargon and write in such a way that it is understandable, Non-technical Writing doesn't include or relate to technical stuff.; this covers a vast range like essay writing, blogging, etc.
✓ The language used in technical writing should be easy to understand and cognitive
✓ The idea we present in technical writing should be accurate, if your idea is wrong your device is also wrong
✓ The technical writing should not evoke some intent, its only objective is to provide information

Difference between Technical and Non-Technical Writings
1. Technical writing is fact-based while non-technical writing is fictional and imaginative
2. Technical writing can be informative, instructional, or persuasive, but non-technical writing is entertaining, provocative, and captivating
3. Technical writing is clear, precise, and straightforward while the other one is artistic, figurative, symbolic, or even vague
4. Technical writing has some objective i.e., it should be free from personal emotions and should involve only technical information while non-technical one is subjective
5. We use specialized vocabulary in technical writing without needing it in non-technical writing.
6. Active vocabulary is used in technical writing while non-technical writing is written in an elaborate format
7. Technical writing is plain while non-technical writing has some transitions
8. Technical writing is easy to understand while the other one is cogitative
9. Technical writing demands simplicity while there is some mystery in non-technical writing
10. Technical writing is free of emotions, precise, and accurate while non-technical one doesn't contain such features

★★ SPEECH -  Use of language in human vocal communication; expresses one's thoughts and emotions through speech sounds and gestures

Informative Speech - Aims to provide interesting and useful information to the audience on a specific topic that focuses on giving significant information and factual statements

Introduction - Must get the audience's attention, introduce the subject, clarify its importance, state a thesis or intent, and outline the key points that are all essential
Body - Central section of the speech in which the main ideas are discussed
Conclusion - Summarize your main points while leaving a lasting impression on your audience

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD SPEECH
1. Expression should be transparent and unambiguous
2. Should be delivered unbiased and unemotional
3. Ensures audience’s participation

KEY TIPS FOR PREPARING A SPEECH
1. Organize your speech
2. Get to the point
3. Use short words and short sentences
4. Persuade with power

PRINCIPLES OF SPEECH DELIVERY
1. Use Prosodic Features of Speech (stress, pitch, intonation, volume, projection, juncture, and rhythm)
2. Stage Presence
3. Facial Expressions, Gestures, and Movements
4. Audience Rapport (or Connection)

PROSODIC FIGURES OF SPEECH
Stress - Force or emphasis used on a sound, syllable, or word in comparison to other sounds
Pitch - Degree of highness or lowness in a person's voice
Intonation - Rise and fall in pitch that occurs when we are speaking
Volume - Loudness of the voice
Projection - Strength of speaking or singing whereby the voice is used loudly and clearly
Juncture - Pause or a slight delay in a continuous flow of speech
Rhythm - Flow of connected speech that comes from the combination of stressed words, unstressed words, and pauses
Stage Presence - Ability to own the stage and being able to fill the space and project the speaker's personality to the audience
Facial expression, gestures, and movements - Build connections with the audience and help emphasize your points
Audience Rapport - Trust and connection that a speaker creates with his or her audience

★★ PARALLEL STRUCTURE:
Gives clarity, coherence, and unity in both speech and writing by joining words, phrases, and clauses with the same grammatical forms; serves to give phrases a pattern and rhythm; parallel construction in a sentence means expressing ideas of equal importance in similar grammatical types or structures.

NOUNS PARALLEL TO NOUNS:
Example: The dry weather worries all animals in the land—preys, predators, plant-eaters, and those who eat meat.
Correct Example: The dry weather worries all animals in the land—preys, predators, plant-eaters, and meat-eaters.

VERBS PARALLEL TO VERBS:
Example: Unseen animals glide, crawling, creep and are prowling in the dark night.
Correct Example: Unseen animals glide, crawl, creep, and prowl in the dark night.

ADJECTIVES PARALLEL TO ADJECTIVES:
Example: The miners walked in the rain-tired, feeling the cold, and drenched with water.
Correct Example: The miners walked in the rain-tired, cold, and wet.

ADVERBS PARALLEL TO ADVERBS:
Example: Lame and unsteadily, the wounded leopard limped away.
Correct Example: Lamely and unsteadily, the wounded leopard limped away.

VERBALS PARALLEL TO VERBALS:
Example: Taylor Swift likes to sing and dancing.
Correct Example: Taylor Swift likes to sing and to dance.

GERUNDS PARALLEL TO GERUNDS:
Example: Psalm likes playing basketball and to watch television.
Correct Example: Psalm likes playing basketball and watching television.

PHRASES PARALLEL TO PHRASES:
Example: It may be under her desk or surely her bag.
Correct Example: It may be under her desk or inside her bag.

CLAUSES PARALLEL TO CLAUSES:
Example: The more we will do today, we will do less next week.
Correct Example: The more we do today, the less we will do next week.

RULES TO CONSIDER WHEN CHECKING PARALLEL STRUCTURE IN WRITING
1. Parallel Structure should be used when elements are joined by coordinating conjunctions
2. Parallel Structure should be used when writing elements in the form of a list or a series
3. Parallel Structure should be used when comparing or contrasting elements (A is better than B or X is less than Y) Note: If the sentence includes time signals that indicate the action happening at a different time or will happen in the future, disregard this rule.

★★ AFRICAN LITERATURE:
Literary works created by authors living in countries on the African continent mainly lying south of the Sahara; known for their wide range of genres; oral in nature and African people often tell stories using call and-response technique

Literary Genre: A category of writing that groups together works with similar features; it can be defined by things like writing style, tone, subject matter, or length, such as in fiction.

CHANT:
⮚It is a repeated rhythmic phrase typically shouted or sung in unison by a crowd.
⮚It tends to be 2 to 4 lines repeated over and over.
⮚It is quick. It makes a point either offensive or defensive.
⮚In Africa, chants are also used during sacred prayers and traditions.
Hamba Nathi: Zulu chant that means "walk with us" and is used to encourage unity and solidarity.
Yaa Amponsah: Ghanaian chant that is used to praise a warrior goddess and invoke her protection.
Alulu: Ethiopian chant that is used to celebrate victory in battle.

POEM:
⮚ It is a collection of spoken or written words that express ideas or emotions in a powerfully vivid and imaginative.
⮚ It is comprised of a particular rhythmic and metrical pattern. A poem’s main function is to convey an idea or emotion in a beautiful language.
⮚ It paints a picture of the poet's feelings about a thing, person, idea, concept, or even an emotion.

FOLKTALES:
⮚These are stories in the oral tradition, or tales that people tell each other out loud, rather than stories in written form.
⮚It is closely related to many storytelling traditions, including fables, myths, and fairy tales.

SHORT STORIES:
⮚ A story with a fully developed theme but significantly shorter and less elaborate than a novel.

NOTABLE AUTHORS FROM AFRICA:
Chinua Achebe: One of the world’s most widely recognized and praised writers; most famous novel: Things Fall Apart (1958).

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie: Born in Nigeria in 1977. She is part of a New Generation of African writers taking the literary world by storm.

Nadine Gordimer: She works powerfully to explore social, moral, and racial issues in South Africa under apartheid (racial segregation) rule.

★★ LITERARY ANALYSIS:
TONE: The author’s feelings or attitude toward his/her subject; a feeling, emotion, or attitude that the author wants the readers to experience
Examples:
1.) Wow! This is a lovely gift, Dad and Mom. (Happiness)
2.) I'm sorry that you can't come to the finals night, Ramon. (Sadness)
3.) Oh, I thought our quiz was today I did my readings last night. (Disappointment)
Examples of Tone words: sad, scary, humorous, generous, formal, etc.

Mood: The story’s atmosphere or the feeling the readers get from the passage.
Examples:
I have asked myself many times, is the Filipino worth suffering, or even dying for?
– Mood is Reflective
Examples of mood words: Happy, romantic, sorrowful, mysterious, suspenseful, etc.

LITERARY FACTORS:
Culture - A complex of features held by a social group, which may be as small as a family, a tribe, or as large as a racial or ethnic group, a nation, or in the age of globalization, by people all over the world; it could be influenced by religion, rituals, manners, language and belief systems.
History - It includes academic discipline that uses a narrative to describe, examine, question, and analyze a sequence of past events and investigate the patterns of cause and effect related to them. It provides us with a sense of identity. It helps us to understand the way things are and how we might approach the future.
Environment - It is a place where the different things, living (biotic) or Non-living (abiotic), constantly interact with and adapt to conditions in their environment. A person’s beliefs and actions depend on his environment.