Sociology: Key Concepts and Theories (Vocabulary Flashcards)
What is Sociology?
- Definition: the systematic study of the relationship between individuals and society.
- A sociological perspective sees connections between individuals and broader social contexts in which they live.
The Sociological Perspective
- C. Wright Mills coined the term sociological imagination.
- Biography (individual condition) depends in part on history (larger forces in society).
- Interaction exists between social conditions that shape our lives and the actions we take as individuals.
Sociology and Common Sense
- You do not have to be a professional sociologist to use a sociological perspective.
- Commonsense folk wisdom often reflects a sociological perspective but can produce contradictory claims.
- To understand social life beyond personal experience, we need a systematic way to comprehend patterns of behavior and processes.
Foundations of Sociological Thought: Comte and Spencer
- Auguste Comte: coined 'sociology' in early 19th century.
- Comte proposed stages of history: theological, metaphysical, positivist.
- Positivism: knowledge should be based on the scientific method.
The Key Founders: Marx, Durkheim, Weber, and Du Bois
- Karl Marx: radical change to advance workers' interests; explained wealth and poverty; connection between wealth and poverty; concept of power.
- Emile Durkheim: established sociology as an academic discipline; social solidarity; division of labor; urbanization/industrialization increases differentiation of tasks and specialization.
Durkheim (continued)
- Crime and punishment revolve around solidarity; crimes offend the collective conscience; without collective norms, anomie.
Max Weber: The Protestant Ethic and the Rationalization of Modern Life
- The Protestant Ethic argued culture helped promote early capitalism in northern Europe.
- Cultural beliefs influence economic development.
- Rationalization: shift from traditional to rational action; long-term process where rationality becomes the basis for organizing social/economic life.
W. E. B. Du Bois: Racial Inequality
- Pioneering sociologist who fought for racial justice.
- The Philadelphia Negro (1899): first sociological study of a Black community.
- Double-consciousness and the veil (The Souls of Black Folk, 1903).
- Pioneered scientific study of race and social inequality; first to perform structural analysis of social inequality; power structures; methods foundational to sociology today.
Recovered Voices: Harriet Martineau and Jane Addams
- Harriet Martineau: often considered the first female sociologist; focused on gender discrimination and slavery; works: Society in America, How to Observe Morals and Manners; translated Comte into English.
Jane Addams: Urban Social Problems
- Hull House founder; provided social services in poor immigrant Chicago communities; first American woman to win Nobel Peace Prize (1931).
- Work in Chicago's South Side influenced urban sociology; major works: Hull House Maps and Papers; Democracy and Social Ethics.
Sociology’s Diverse Theories: Understanding Theory
- Theories explain observations; answer 'why' questions; help explain data.
- A social theory is a set of principles/propositions about relationships among social phenomena.
- A theory is not just a hunch; theories evolve/reject; the most useful survive.
- Multiple theories often give a more complete picture than any single theory.
Key Dimensions of Theory
- Theories vary along: consensus vs conflict; subjective vs objective reality; micro-level vs macro-level analyses.
- Each dimension is a continuum, not a strict either-or; knowing where a theory lies helps place it in the larger picture.
- (Figure illustrating the axes: Consensus vs Conflict, Objective vs Subjective, Micro/Meso/Macro)
Key Dimensions: Consensus and Conflict
- Conflict: tensions/disputes from unequal distribution of scarce resources; can drive social change.
- Consensus: solidarity/cooperative interaction due to shared values/interests; can support social stability.
Objective and Subjective Reality
- Objective conditions: material aspects of social life (physical environment, social networks, institutions); exist outside us.
- Subjective dimension: world of ideas (norms, values, belief systems); exist in our heads.
Micro-, Meso-, and Macro-level Analyses
- Micro: small-scale, face-to-face interactions.
- Macro: large-scale systems/processes (economy, politics, population trends).
- Meso: between large and small (organizations, companies).
Structural-Functionalist Theories
- Focus on consensus and cooperative interaction; parts contribute to overall operation.
- Robert K. Merton distinguished manifest, latent, and dysfunctional functions.
Manifest, Latent, and Dysfunctional Functions
- Manifest functions: recognized and intended consequences.
- Latent functions: largely unrecognized and unintended consequences.
- Dysfunctional functions: inhibit or disrupt the functioning of the system.
Conflict Theories
- Focus on contention, power, inequality; competition for scarce resources.
- The conflict approach sees power as the core of social life.
Symbolic Interactionist Theories
- Focus on how society emerges from people's use of shared symbols in everyday interactions.
- Strongly associated with the subjective and micro-level dimensions of social life.
Feminist Theories and Theoretical Diversity
- Focus on inequality between women and men; aligned with conflict theories.
- Provide insight into how inequalities are created/maintained in daily interactions.
- No single feminist theory.
Sociology’s Common Ground: Culture, Structure, and Power
- Core concepts unite diverse theories in sociology.
- All major theoretical approaches rely on culture, structure, and power to varying degrees.
Table 1.2: Core Concepts and Approaches to Sociological Theory
- Core concepts: Culture, Structure, Power.
- Approaches: Functionalist, Conflict, Symbolic Interactionist.
- Each column addresses key questions, with culture/structure/power explained for each approach.
- Culture: Functionalist—culture as consensus, socialization; Conflict—dominant culture used to maintain privilege; Oppressed develop countercultures; SI—culture via symbols and interpretation; socialization.
- Structure: Functionalist—stable, interdependent parts; gradual change; Conflict—dominant groups coercion; collective action leads to change; SI—structure produced by recurring actions; unstable and needs reproduction.
- Power: Functionalist—power to achieve collective goals; inequality serves function; Conflict—power concentrated in dominant group; inequality from group struggle; SI—power rooted in social relationships; inequality changeable.
Culture, Structure, and Power (Continued)
- Culture: values, beliefs, knowledge, norms, language, behaviors, and material objects; shared; transmitted across generations; not natural; learned via socialization; universal at all levels; broad as 'way of life'.
- Structure: recurring patterns of behavior; present at all levels; range from informal to formal; created to achieve goals; constrain what we can do.
- Daily life is ordered by informal patterns; structures reproduced via routine behavior or changed by changes in behavior.
- Visual depiction (not transcribed here).
Power
- Power is the ability to bring about an intended outcome, even against opposition.
- Operates at all levels.
- Used to allocate resources (economic power), make rules/decisions (political power), define reality (cultural power).
- Closely tied to inequality.
Review
- How can sociology and the sociological perspective help understand society and our place in it?
- How can culture, structure, and power, and diverse theories help understand ourselves and our world?
- How can sociology, emerging in a period of revolutionary change, help understand our rapidly changing world?
