Islam Final Exam Review

Final Exam Review: Islam

The final exam is worth 25 points out of 100 for the semester grade and consists of 75 objective questions.

Exam Breakdown

• 15 questions from Islam material.
• 25 questions from the Judaism unit.
• 10 questions from each of Units 1-4.

I. Pre-Islamic Arabian Peninsula – Religious and Cultural Landscape

• The Arabian Peninsula before Islam is referred to by Muslims as Jāhiliyyah, or “the Age of Ignorance”. It was characterized by diverse tribal cultures, oral poetry, and shifting religious affiliations.
• Religiously, the region was pluralistic:
  • Arabian polytheism dominated, especially among nomadic tribes, who worshipped tribal deities, nature spirits, and idols.
  • The Kaaba in Mecca housed hundreds of idols and served as a neutral pilgrimage site for many tribes.
  • Christian communities existed in various forms (Nestorian, Monophysite, Chalcedon, etc.), especially along the northern fringes and in Yemen, often influenced by the Byzantine and Ethiopian empires.
  • Jewish tribes had strongholds in Yathrib (later Medina) and southern Arabia, including politically influential groups.
• The peninsula was not religiously monolithic; beliefs ranged from animism and tribal cults to ethical monotheism influenced by Judaism and Christianity.
• The Hanifs were a group of monotheists who rejected polytheism but did not formally align with Judaism or Christianity. Scholars believe that Muhammad emerged from or was influenced by this movement.

II. Pre-Islamic Political and Tribal Fragmentation

• Prior to Islam, the Arabian Peninsula was deeply tribal, with no central government. Loyalties were to extended kinship groups.
• Religion often reinforced tribal identity; deities were linked to clans, and conflict often had a sacred dimension.
• The Quraysh tribe, located in Mecca, dominated trade routes and the pilgrimage economy because they controlled the Kaaba and oversaw religious rituals.
• Yathrib (later Medina) was a politically fragmented oasis town with Arab and Jewish tribes in constant rivalry. This later provided a strategic foothold for Muhammad.

III. Mecca and the Kaaba – Origins and Significance

• Mecca’s emergence as a sacred and commercial center was shaped by the convergence of geography, myth, and tribal politics. It is nestled in an arid valley surrounded by mountains and built around a rare natural water source known as the Zamzam spring.
  • The presence of this spring made Mecca a logical place for early settlement and long-distance trade to converge in a largely desert environment.
  • For ancient peoples, the spring was likely viewed as a sacred gift of life in a barren land and interpreted as a sign from the gods or divine favor.
• The Kaaba, a cuboid stone structure near the spring, functioned as a pre-Islamic sanctuary for all tribal peoples bringing their caravans for water and supplies.
  • Its true origins are unknown, which contributed to its mystique.
  • Many tribes believed it was the oldest shrine in the Arabian Peninsula, predating known tribal histories.
  • Its pre-Islamic religious role was broad, serving as a pan-tribal sacred space housing a pantheon of idols from across the Arabian Peninsula.
• Mecca’s sacred status was reinforced by sacred months of truce, when violence was forbidden and pilgrimage could occur safely, transforming the city into a neutral zone where tribal rivalries were suspended.
• The Quraysh tribe capitalized on this religious magnetism:
  • They managed pilgrimage rituals, maintained the Kaaba, and collected offerings, gaining both economic wealth and spiritual prestige.
  • Their position elevated Mecca into a central marketplace and sanctuary, blending commerce and cult in ways unmatched by other cities in the region.
• Later Islamic tradition reframed the Kaaba’s origins within a monotheistic narrative:
  • The shrine was said to have been first built by Adam, lost in the flood, and then rebuilt by Abraham and Ishmael in obedience to God.
  • This recasting of sacred memory validated Islam’s position that it was restoring the original monotheism that existed prior to “Jāhiliyyah,” transforming the Kaaba from a pagan sanctuary into the holiest site in Islam, now emptied of idols but retaining its pre-Islamic sanctity.
• This continuity of sacred space, combined with its geography and mythic aura, explains why Mecca retained its centrality even after the rise of Islam.
• Mecca was uniquely suited for urban and commercial development due to:
  • Its location at the intersection of caravan trade routes between the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean.
  • Its function as a neutral pilgrimage zone where warring tribes suspended conflict during sacred months.

IV. The Rise of Muhammad – Prophetic Revelation and Reform

• Muhammad was born c. 570 CE into the Quraysh tribe in Mecca. He was orphaned and raised by relatives.
• He led caravans across the Arabian Peninsula, which exposed him to monotheistic traditions through interaction with Christians, Jews, Hanifs, etc.
• At age 40, he began receiving revelations from God (Allah) through the angel Gabriel (Jibril) while meditating in a cave near Mecca.
• The early message emphasized:
  • Ethical monotheism.
  • Social justice: care for the poor, orphans, and marginalized.
  • Accountability before God and resurrection.
  • A return to Abrahamic worship (Tawhid – absolute oneness of God).
• Muhammad’s critique of Meccan idolatry and economic injustice made him a threat to Quraysh elites.

V. The Hijrah and the Formation of the Ummah

• In 622 CE, facing intensifying persecution in Mecca, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Yathrib. This is known as the Hijrah, which marks year one of the Islamic calendar.
  • This migration represented the birth of a new community rooted in shared faith and moral commitment rather than bloodline.
  • Yathrib was renamed Al-Madīnah al-Nabawiyyah (“The City of the Prophet”), today known simply as Medina.
• In Medina, Muhammad:
  • Was invited as a neutral arbitrator among feuding clans, especially between pagan Arab tribes and powerful Jewish groups.
  • Drafted a multi-religious social contract, the Constitution of Medina, which acknowledged Jews and Muslims as part of a single polity and defined collective defense, conflict resolution, and religious freedom.
  • Formed the first “ummah” – a united religious-political community based not on tribal descent, but on submission to one God and loyalty to shared values.
• This new model of belonging marked a radical departure from Arabian norms:
  • Islam created a “super-tribe,” where allegiance to God and His messenger superseded tribal kinship.
  • This ideological unity enabled Islam to transcend traditional rivalries, forging alliances across tribal boundaries.
• Through diplomacy, strategic marriages, treaties, and selective military engagement, the Islamic movement grew, eventually rivaling Mecca in power and influence.
  • By the time Muhammad and his followers returned to Mecca in a position of strength, they did so as the leaders of a moral and political order that many Meccans could now accept.
  • The peaceful reclamation of Mecca in 630 CE was possible precisely because the ummah had become the most inclusive and unifying force in Arabia.

VI. Basic Tenets of Islam

• At the heart of Islam lies the belief in tawhid (the absolute oneness of God) and the conviction that Muhammad is God’s final prophet in a long line that includes figures like Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.
• The Five Pillars of Islam (Core Religious Duties):
  • Shahada (Profession of Faith): “There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the messenger of God.” This affirms both monotheism and prophethood.
  • Salat (Daily Prayer): Muslims pray five times a day, facing the Kaaba in Mecca.
  • Zakat (Almsgiving): A required charitable contribution, typically 2.5% of one’s wealth.
  • Sawm (Fasting during Ramadan): Muslims fast from dawn to sunset during the lunar month of Ramadan.
  • Hajj (Pilgrimage to Mecca): Required once in a lifetime for those physically and financially able. Reenacts the journey of Abraham, Hagar, and Ishmael.
• The Qur’an: Meaning “recitation”, it’s believed to be the direct and unaltered word of God, revealed in classical Arabic to Muhammad over 23 years. It is not arranged chronologically, but by length and theme interweaving legal, ethical, poetic, and apocalyptic elements.
• The Sunnah and Hadith:
  • The Sunnah refers to the example set by the Prophet Muhammad in word, deed, and silent approval. It is considered the second most authoritative source in Islam after the Qur’an.
  • The Hadith are the narrated reports that preserve this Sunnah. Hadith collections were compiled by early Muslim scholars who developed criteria for authenticity. While the Qur’an provides core doctrine, the Hadith flesh out the details of daily religious life such as how to pray, the ethics of business, or the character traits of a virtuous person.

VII. Death of Muhammad and the Succession Controversy

• Muhammad died in 632 CE without naming a clear successor, leading to the question of who would lead the Muslims as caliph (successor).
  • Some favored Abu Bakr, a close companion, who was chosen as the first caliph by consensus.
  • Others believed leadership should stay within the Prophet’s family, favoring Ali, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law.
• This dispute evolved into a major theological-political split:
  • Sunni Islam (majority): Believed in the legitimacy of the first four “Rightly Guided Caliphs” and emphasized consensus and community tradition.
  • Shi’a Islam (minority): Believed leadership should come through the Prophet’s bloodline, beginning with Ali and his descendants (the Imams).
• Shi’a theology developed its own doctrines around the Imamate:
  • Imams as divinely guided, sinless leaders.
  • Emphasis on martyrdom, justice, and hidden knowledge.

VIII. Major Shi’a Groups

• Twelvers: The largest Shi’a branch. They believe in a line of 12 Imams, the last of whom is in occultation (hiddenness) and will return as the Mahdi, a messianic figure to bring justice.
• Zaydis (Fivers): More moderate politically and closer in some practices to Sunnis but still uphold Ali’s primacy.
• Isma’ilis: Split from the Twelvers over the identity of the seventh Imam. They emphasize esoteric interpretation.

IX. Islamic Mysticism – Sufism

• Sufism is the mystical dimension of Islam, emphasizing:
  • Inner purification and spiritual closeness to God. Love of God is viewed as the path to divine union.
  • Poetry, music, and dance (e.g., whirling dervishes) as spiritual practices in some orders.
• Developed Sufi orders across Sunni and Shi’a worlds.
• Sufism often served as a missionary force, spreading Islam along trade routes in Africa, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia.