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Characteristics of income levels
GNI per capita
- the total value of goods and services a country’s citizens produce, including the value of income earned by citizens who may be working in an overseas country.
What is used to classify countries of high-, middle- and low-income countries
- GNI per capita
Can you abbreviate GNI? Yes
High-income country
Economic characteristics
- high average incomes
- low levels of debt
- a wide range of trade opportunities
- low levels of poverty
- a wide range of industries
Social characteristics
- high levels of employment
- high levels of education
- social support systems
- low birth rates
- a developed healthcare system - access to technology
- developed legal and political systems
- being less likely to have a history of colonialism
Environmental characteristics
- adequate infrastructure
- adequate housing
- access to safe drinking water
- access to sanitation
- access to food
- agricultural productivity
Middle-income country
Economic characteristics
- moderate average incomes transitioning towards low levels of debt
- transitioning towards greater
- opportunities for global trade
- transitioning towards low levels of poverty
- a moderate range of national industries
Social characteristics
- transitioning towards high levels of employment
- transitioning towards high levels of education
- increasing social support systems
- transitioning towards lower birth rates
- transitioning towards a developed healthcare system
- transitioning towards greater access to technology
- transitioning towards developed legal and political systems
Environmental characteristics
- transitioning towards adequate infrastructure
- transitioning towards complete access to clean water for all citizens
- transitioning towards complete access to sanitation for all citizens
- transitioning towards greater access to food for all citizens
- transitioning towards an increase in agricultural productivity
Low-income country
Economic characteristics
- low average incomes high levels of debt
- few opportunities for global trade
- high levels of poverty
- a narrow range of national industries
Social characteristics
- inadequate access to employment
- inadequate access to education
- inadequate social support systems
- high birth rates
- an underdeveloped healthcare system
- inadequate access to technology
- underdeveloped legal and political systems
- being more likely to have a history of colonialism
Environmental characteristics
- inadequate infrastructure
- inadequate access to safe drinking water
- inadequate access to sanitation
- inadequate access to food
- inadequate agricultural productivity
GLOBAL MARKETING AND DISTRIBUTION - TOBACCO, ALCOHOL AND PROCESSED FOODS
Globalisation
- The process whereby boundaries between countries are reduced or
eliminated allowing individuals, groups and companies to act on a global scale. Globalisation makes it easier for companies to distribute, market and sell their services and products in all corners of the globe.
Double burden of disease
- Refers to the coexistence of communicable diseases associated with poverty and non-communicable diseases associated with wealth
Tobacco
- Smoking contains thousands of chemicals which can cause a fault in the cells hence increasing the chance of a cancerous tumour.
- Smoking can cause the thickening of the blood in the bloodstream therefore making the heart work harder increasing cardiovascular disease
- Smoking damages the airways which can lead to respiratory conditions like COPD, lung cancer
Reason why tobacco companies are deliberately targeting low- and middle-income countries-Less laws and restrictions on advertising or consumption
- Less sales tax on companies
- Lack of public campaigns for the risks
- Less health literacy of individuals so don’t understand the risks
Alcohol
- Excessive alcohol consumption is linked to a range of mental and behavioural disorders, including alcohol dependence and other non-communicable diseases (liver cirrhosis, cardiovascular disease and some cancers including liver cancer), as well as injuries occurring as a result of violence, traffic accidents, self-harm, suicide, and trips & falls.
- Alcohol consumption is highest in MIDDLE INCOME due to an increase in population rates and income.
Alcohol consumption in low- and middle-income countries is increasing.
Impact on the burden of disease as a result of this trend.
- Alcohol consumption can lead to risk-taking behaviours such as drink driving or violence increasing the chances of injury therefore contributing to DALY rates.
- Alcohol is energy-dense and high in kilojoules which can lead to weight gain increasing the chances of obesity and contributing to YLD rates.
Processed Foods
- Many people have neglected their traditional diets, which are often low in fat, for Westernised foods. These are often high in fat, salt and/or sugar and contribute to a more energy-dense diet. This is contributing to an increased incidence of lifestyle diseases such as obesity, hypertension and cardiovascular disease.
Similarities and differences in health status and burden of disease in low-, middle- and high-income countries, including Australia
Similarities
- Life expectancy and Health adjusted life expectancy has increased over time in most countries
- Females have a higher life expectancy and HALE than males
- Under 5 mortality rate improved in most countries around the world
- Non-communicable diseases account for the highest percentage of deaths
Differences
- LIC & MIC: Lower Life expectancy & HALE
- LIC & MIC: higher rates of mortality and morbidity
- LIC: Maternal mortality is significantly higher
- LIC & MIC: Higher YLL rates to communicable and non-communicable diseases
- HIC: Higher YLD rates (due to better treatment in healthcare and living longer)
Factors that contribute to similarities and differences in health status and burden of disease
Safe water
Safe water refers to water that is not contaminated with disease-causing pathogens such as bacteria and viruses, or chemicals such as lead and mercury.
Safe water is required
- Consumption
- Food preparation and cooking
- Washing and hygiene
- Agriculture and production
Diseases that come from contaminated water
- Gastroenteritis
- Diarrhoea
- Dysentery
- Cholera
Sanitation
Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and faeces, but can also refer to the maintenance of hygienic conditions through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal.
Defection
Open defecation is the practice of defecating (Faeces) in fields, forests, bushes, bodies of water, or other open spaces
lack of adequate sanitation can keep a family in poverty
- Girls are less likely to attend school due to toilets not being segregated and no privacy due to their menstruation. This leads to low education levels and hence low opportunity for employment increasing chances of poverty.
Constantly being sick from people openly defecating in water sources due to no adequate toilet or latrine leads to waterborne diseases reducing the chance of earning an income. Increasing the poverty cycle.
Poverty
- Poverty refers to the deprivation of resources. Basic resources such as shelter, food, education, healthcare, clean water and sanitation.
How is it measured?
- Extreme poverty – Living on less than US$1.90 a day
- Relative poverty – Living on less than 50% of the countries average income
Impact on health status for Inadequate housing
- Inadequate housing/shelter can mean individuals are exposed to poor air quality increasing chances of morbidity in respiratory diseases.
- Exposure to outside unhygienic elements such as garbage/waste disposal increase the incidence of infectious diseases
Impact on health status for pregnant women may not have access to a
skilled birth attendant, such as a midwife
- No skilled birth attendant during pregnancy can heighten the risk of complications during birth such as hemorrhage increasing maternal mortality.
Inequality and discrimination
- These minority groups often results in social exclusion, preventing millions of people from participating in the society in which they live in relation to education, access to healthcare, community participation, employment and housing.
- Groups who are discriminated against experience inequality in relation to a range of outcomes, including, having higher rates of depression and anxiety, having higher rates of premature death, including under-five mortality, being more likely to be the victim of intentional violence
Impact on health status for Women and girls are more likely to be forced into marriage in middle- and low-income countries.
- Forced marriage can lead to girls falling pregnant before their bodies are adequately developed to deal with pregnancy and childbirth. As a result, pregnant girls are more likely to experience conditions such as obstetric fistula increasing the risk of maternal mortality.
Impact on health status Globally, many members of religious or belief communities face discrimination, including social exclusion.
- Social exclusion can lead to people of religious groups not being able to access basic resources such as healthcare leading to conditions going undiagnosed increasing death rates therefore reducing life expectancy.
People who face racial discrimination may be forced to flee and live in a foreign country as a refugee.
Impact on burden of disease
- Forced to flee or being displaced from your own home can lead new living environment may lack food and water, increasing risks of contracting a waterborne disease such as cholera increasing DALY rates.