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Working-Class Women

• Expected to work before and often after marriage to supplement insufficient family income.

• Commonly earned less than men, leading to economic dependency.

• Mostly found employment in domestic service, but some worked in industries, especially textiles during early industrialization.

• Early manufacturers believed women’s dexterity made them suited for machine operation.

• By mid-19th century, women made up a majority of the British industrial workforce.

• Ironically, the same labor-saving devices that increased female employment later displaced many of these jobs, e.g., the spinning jenny replaced ten workers.

• One in three European women became domestic servants, often moving to cities for jobs, leading to greater independence from family control.

• Many young women saved their wages for personal goals, such as dowries or future careers.

Middle-Class Women

• Generally did not work outside the home; industrialization confined them to the domestic sphere.

• Faced societal pressure to conform as mothers and wives.

• The ideal woman, as described by Mrs. John Sandford (1833), was fully dedicated to home life, portraying independence (such as working) as unfeminine.

Child Labor

• Industrialization changed childhood experiences, with many children working long hours in factories far from home.

• Reports showed horrendous treatment of child workers in textile mills, yet families often needed their wages to survive.

• By the 1840s, regulations began to limit child labor, culminating in laws mandating education over work for children.

• In the long term, the role of children redefined under industrialization emphasized education.

The Socialist Challenge

• Socialists were vocal critics of industrial society wanting to address the inequalities perpetuated by capitalism.

• They emphasized economic equality alongside political and social rights, envisioning a more equitable society.

Utopian Socialists

• Coined in the 1830s, notable figures include Charles Fourier and Robert Owen, who established model communities to demonstrate their visions.

• Fourier condemned market competition; Owen created the New Lanark community, improving wages and conditions while generating profit.

• Despite the appeal, many utopian communities failed due to economic and political issues.

Marx and Engels

• Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels dismissed utopian socialists as unrealistic, focusing instead on the class struggles inherent in capitalism.

• They saw capitalism as creating two classes: the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers).

• Argued that capitalist exploitation would lead to class consciousness and eventual revolution.

• Institutions, including state mechanisms and cultural elements, worked to maintain capitalist structures at the expense of the proletariat.

The Communist Manifesto

• Co-authored by Marx and Engels in 1848, the Manifesto of the Communist Party analyzed class struggles and predicted a proletarian revolution.

• Asserted that societal divisions would ultimately lead to capitalism's downfall, replaced by a dictatorial proletariat.

• The manifesto portrayed a vision of socialism as a benevolent alternative to the capitalist order.

Trends of Industrial Society

• The formation of trade unions sought to balance the struggles between workers and industrialists.

• Early on, unions faced legal challenges but eventually they improved labor conditions and negotiated better terms for workers.

• Governments began to respond to socialist critiques from the late 19th century onward by enacting legislation to protect the working class, including restrictions on child labor and labor rights.

Global Effects of Industrialization

• Initially concentrated in Britain, Western Europe, and North America, industrialization spread slowly to other regions including Russia and Japan.

• Industrial powers extracted raw materials from pre-industrial societies, significantly impacting local economies negatively by flooding markets with manufactured goods.

• The divide between industrialized nations and those still reliant on agriculture shaped global labor relations.

The Meiji Restoration in Japan

• The arrival of Commodore Perry in 1853 led to Japan's opening to foreign trade and prompted a restoration of imperial power.

• The Meiji era marked the beginning of significant political, economic, and social reforms aimed to modernize Japan.

• Aimed for national strength, the Meiji government established a constitutional monarchy and created vast improvements in infrastructure and education.

• The government implemented a radically new tax system and sought to industrialize rapidly through state-supported initiatives.

• By 1905, Japan emerged as a major military power with victories against China and Russia, leading to greater international recognition.