Rhetorical Situations and Exigence

Rhetorical Situation

• Historical Context:

  • Bitzer's (1968) essay "The Rhetorical Situation" has been crucial in contemporary rhetorical studies since the late 1960s. It continues to influence both education and scholarly discussions.

  • The concept of the rhetorical situation emphasizes that rhetorical discourse arises as a response to specific situations.

• Definition of Rhetorical Situation:

  • Defined as a complex of persons, events, objects, and relations that present an actual or potential exigence, which can be modified through discourse.

Key Components of Rhetorical Situations

• Exigence:

  • Defined as an urgency for action or change, representing an issue that needs attention.

  • Bitzer categorized exigences into two types:

    • Non-rhetorical exigences (e.g., natural disasters) are those that cannot be altered through discourse.

    • Rhetorical exigences can be modified with discourse (e.g., racism, air pollution).

  • Example:

    • Racism requires persuasive discourse to inspire change. Air pollution requires discourse to motivate legislative action.

• Audience:

  • A rhetorical audience must:

    • Be capable of being influenced by discourse.

    • Act as mediators of change.

  • Audience members are required to be open to the arguments presented.

  • Types of Audiences:

    • Those who can make final decisions.

    • Those who can influence decision-makers.

• Constraints:

  • Defined as factors that limit the effectiveness of an advocate’s response to exigencies.

  • Examples of constraints include negative perceptions (e.g., a politician's image, scientific disagreements).

  • Constraints can be viewed as mini-exigences needing negotiation to resolve the larger exigence.

Development of Situations

• Stages of Rhetorical Situations:

  • Origin and Development: Recognition of exigence.

  • Maturity: Exigence is recognized and capable of being addressed.

  • Deterioration: Changes make addressing exigence more difficult.

  • Disintegration: Audience and resources become unavailable, struggle to address exigence.

Objectivism vs. Subjectivism in Rhetorical Situations

• Critique of Objectivism:

  • Bitzer described situations as objective and measurable, a perspective challenged by scholars (e.g., Vatz) who argue that situations are shaped by human perception and discourse.

  • Critics assert that discourse not only responds to situations but also plays a role in creating and defining them.

Formation of Exigencies

• Connection to Human Interests:

  • An exigency comes from a real condition tied to human interests; they transform into “defects” that need alteration. For instance:

    • Test scores become a rhetorical exigence only when connected to interests like success and achievement.

Typology of Situational Exigences

• Defining the Situation:

  • Advocates must present their understanding of a situation, making complex events comprehensible to the audience.

  • Examples of guiding questions:

    • What has happened?

    • Who is to blame?

    • What should we do?

Audience Creation and Group Solidarity

• Building Audience Identity:

  • Advocates persuade audiences to recognize their importance in effecting change.

  • Examples from history:

    • Thomas Paine’s pamphlet emphasized colonies' capabilities against British forces.

    • Malcolm X’s rhetoric sought to instill awareness in African Americans of their power to change.

  • Process involves establishing a collective identity through discourse, enhancing solidarity among diverse group members.

Maintenance of Audience Cohesion

• Strategies for Sustaining Identity:

  • Advocates create group identity by contrasting their group with an adversarial stereotype.

  • The need for reinforcing group solidarity, as seen in labor movements or nationalistic appeals during crises.

• Challenges faced during activism: Maintaining unity amidst external pressures and differing opinions within the group.