Social and Economic change

1.1 Changing social structures and systems; role of women in society

Social Structure

• Introduction of a caste system, which divided habitants due their ethnicity and indicated the taxation they were obliged to pay.

  • Peninsulares: Born in Spain; could hold highest ranking in colonial institutions

  • Creoles: Descendants of Spaniards (Peninsulares). Despite ethnic and cultural origin, they could not assume leadership of colonial institutions.

  • Mestizos: descendants of Spaniards (or Europeans) and Indigenous.

  • Indigenous/Mulattoes: native populations present prior to the arrival of Spaniards. Subject to forced labour. 

    • Mulattoes, descendants of Spaniards and Africans. By law, the child inherited the status of the mother, so a mulatto could be born into slavery.

  • Africans: Slaves; performed forced labour.

• Ethnic division and differentiation within indigenous population was not comprehended and thus overlooked by Spaniards. All native habitants classified as ‘indios’

• Inca nobility was recognised by Spanish authorities in the form of caciques, a hereditary native nobility. 

  • Caciques were in charge of the civil and criminal jurisdiction over their subjects under the supervision of Spanish authorities.

  • Privileges: exempted from paying tribute and forced labour and the right to have their cases tried by the audiencias, bypassing corregidores, their immediate superiors. Likewise, they were entitled to honours similar to those of hidalgos of Castile.

Social Systems:

• The Inca Empire had a redistributive economy: crop production was controlled by the state and then redistributed according to the needs of the population. Individuals did not own land, had businesses or made a profit

  • Incas did not have a form of currency and relied on exchanging goods in order to ‘purchase’ something and offering labour through Mit’a to pay taxes.

• Establishment of the encomienda system, whereby:

• An Indian would work in a land (upon threats of punishment or death) owned by a Spaniard, who was charged with ‘protecting’ and ‘Christianizing’ them.

  • This system was based on the mediaeval manorial system, where a peasant worked for a manorial lord and paid a portion of their produce in return for protection.

• In reality this system did not grant them anything of the promise. While natives tributed in the Empire, they received protection and food security as all collected crops were stored in a warehouse. Now, they had virtually no rights and all surplus was destined to purchase goods from overseas as well as African slaves.

  • Many newly arrived Spaniard aspired to be encomenderos since many could live from that produced by their encomiendas.

  • The encomienda meant there was private land ownership although it was a privilege only available to a select group.

Role of Women:

• Women in the Inca empire could claim high positions as priestesses. Femininity was linked to the Goddess of the Moon, which was the counterpart (and not inferior) of Inti, God of Sun.

  • Women could not claim such a position within the Catholic Church.

• Notions of male-female binaries in different spheres were expressed through Andean spatial hierarchies of Hanan (male) and Hurin (female).

  • Nonetheless, these dichotomies were conceived as complementary within a relationship ‘bound through a system of reciprocity.’ This differed to European/Spanish ideas which deemed the female weak and submissive.

• Upon the arrival of the conquistadors, however, many noble women and princesses were offered to Spaniards as wives, in an attempt to make a strategic alliance.

  • This practice was also common during the Incan Empire. However, princesses from other populations could never become the principal wife (Coya) of a Sapa Inca.

1.2 Population expansion and movements

• Migration from the Old World

  • Upon hearing of the success of the conquest and richess available in the defeated empire, a new wave of Spanish migrants moved with hopes of becoming instantly rich.

  • Arrival of African slaves to help in the conquest process and later to work in mines.

    • By 1544, there were around 5,000 Spaniard and 200-300 Africans to help in the progress of colonisation.

• Reducciones:

  • Resettlement program started in 1570 under viceroy Francisco de Toledo. The aim of this program was to move native populations to Spanish-style towns, in order to be surveilled by civil authorities and parish priests.

  • This program displaced at least 1.5 million people and was possible due to Toledo’s extraordinary organisational skills.

• Encomienda:

  • Derived from a Mediaeval system. Indigenous worked for a master (Spanish conquistador) who was in charge of ‘protecting’ and ‘Christianizing’ them.

  • Since there were no territorial dimensions, the encomiendas were allocated over the population of a cacical sphere.

    • This meant populations were randomly grouped and uprooted from their ‘home’ communities.

1.3 Treatment of minorities (Indigenous)

• The Spanish conquest policy encouraged subjugation of native population but not extermination. This was because forced labour was seen as lesser work that could be given to Indians while the Spanish crown considered all inhabitants tax-paying subjects.

• Indigenous populations endured religious persecution although at large, it also aimed to erase culture, this was done through:

  • Extirpacion de idolatrias: a series of campaigns which aimed to force conversion. With the support of the Church and colonial authorities, it was a system based on baseless accusations.

    • Much like the Inquisition, natives had little chance to defend themselves from these allegations. It used torture to obtain a ‘confession’ on claims of heresy which sometimes was not true.

    • Furthermore, authorities encouraged populations to denounce members from their own community. This could potentially lead to a fractured community.

  • Reducciones: forced relocation to Spanish-style towns and surveilled by clergy and colonial authorities. This was a way to uproot from their ancestral home, therefore disconnecting with identity. It was also a way to instil European and Christian values on native daily life.

    • In both schemes, authorities destroyed huacas, which were Andean ritual sites

• Indigenous were subject to forced labour and high taxation mainly through the encomienda system, which promised guardianship in exchange for labour.

  • In reality this system did not grant them anything of the promise. While natives tributed in the Empire, they received protection and food security as all collected crops were stored in a warehouse. Now, they had virtually no rights and all surplus was destined to purchase goods from overseas as well as African slaves.

1.4 Economic change: development of, and changing patterns of trade, role and impact of merchants and travellers

• The new economic policy was marked by Spanish mercantilism, which restricted colonial trade within Spanish territory and monopoly, through the Casa de Contratacion (est. 1503) which regulated mining imports and authorised trade voyages.

• The main sectors were mining and agriculture. Transatlantic trade was later set up in order to transport groups and became a profitable business of its own.

Mining

• The base for the Peruvian economy. Encouraged the foundation of cities (industrial boom-towns).

• Mining was the primary way of obtaining personal wealth, given the value of precious metals during the 16th century.

  • However, when population declined due to illnesses and a growing Spanish emigration, mining turned from feeloading to a ‘organically develop and directing commercial enterprises’

• Spaniards lacked knowledge on extraction methods and metallurgy, thus relied on native techniques who were skilled in smelting and refining.

  • Introduction of amalgamation refinery reduced the reliance of native knowledge and labour but gave Spaniards more de facto control over mining operations.

• The Spanish crown set up an effective monopoly of mining trade. It granted silver imports licensing to the Casa de Contratacion, which received all important and dispatched exports. The port of El Callao in Lima, had a similar ‘monopolistic arrangement’. 

• Tax rate for newly mined silver remained at 21% throughout the 16th century.

Agriculture

• Many encomenderos chose to employ their coerced labour in agriculture.

  • After failing productivity on tribute and an increasing emigration, demand for food grew. This motivated encomenderos to shift from a rent-based profits towards a ‘profitable sales of agricultural goods.’

• Initially, Spaniards incorporated American products (e.g. maize, potatoes) in their own diet. 

  • Transplantation of European products such as grapes created a prominent regional wine market.

• Nonetheless, the agricultural sector growth was halted due to the preference of inefficient European farming methods (decentralised large-scale cultivation, reliance of plough animals), shortage of arable land as well as external factors like the internal political conflict.

Shipping, Trade and Transportation

• Casa de Contratacion controlled legal shipping to and from Spanish American colonies. The institution created a consulado (merchants’ guild) which obtained the rights to the American colonial trade in Seville.

  • Members of the consulado had a monopoly on trade. This allowed them to raise prices in response to increased costs.

• Despite many official restrictions, smuggling was uncommon in the 16th century mainly due to the fact there were no other significant colonies.

Manufacture (Cloth making)

• Cloth-making was a substantial sub-sector.

• Initially, Spaniards relied on native materials such as alpaca, vicuña and techniques like looms and hand-held spindles. However, seeking greater profitability, Spaniards eventually imported European innovations such as spinning wheels and treadle looms, to increase production.

• Differentiated products and efficiency in productions, enabled limited exports to neighbouring colonies and lower prices to Peruvian colonists.

  • The prosperity of the sector encouraged the migration of skilled craftsmen such as tailors, shoemakers.

• This is considered the only successful ‘non-mining-related’ industry.

Cultural and intellectual change

2.1 Artistic, cultural and intellectual movements

Artistic

• Christianization was both an ideological and artistic effort. 

• The destruction of Incan temples or building on top of ruins signalled both the success of Spanish dominion and subjugation. In a more practical sense, this practice was also used to build earthquake-resistant constructions.

  • A famous example is the Convent of Santo Domingo (1534) which was built on top of the Coricancha (or Qorikancha) temple.

• However, some of these constructions honoured the site's previous significance. For instance, Coricancha was a temple dedicated to Inti, the highest deity. Having a Church meant intertwining Christian and Incan notions of divinity.

• Paintings served to introduce Christian concepts to indigenous populations. Because these were new (and difficult to describe through interpreters), depiction and intertwining with Andean elements proved to be effective.

• The first artistic centre, the Escuela Cuzqueña, was founded as early as 1539 with the construction of the Iglesia del Triunfo, the first cathedral in Cusco.

  • The Escuela was both an institution and movement which blended European painting techniques with Andean natural elements. For instance, most of the early paintings exhibit mannerism, a style which elongates subjects, first introduced by Italian priest and painter Bernardo Bitti.

Cultural

• Spread of intellectual movements was constantly surveilled by The Church. For instance, the Renaissance movements did not arrive at the time it was happening in Europe and thus American intellectual life enjoyed a prolonged Mediaeval age.

• The foundation of schools and universities (sponsored by The Church) promoted the creation of an educated mestizo elite, who would often use their knowledge on Andean traditions to offer a nuanced interpretation of the Inca Empire and defy its barbarian image in Europe.

• Chivalry novels were widely popular amongst social classes in the seventeenth century.

  • Although books were a luxury (set of chivalric romances were the same as three pairs of boots) and there was a high illiteracy rate, culture was disseminated through proverbs, ballads and tertulias (passage of a novel was read aloud)

    • The illiterate class included poor Spaniards, creoles, mestizos and some indigenous.

  • Moreover, the popularity of this genre was decisive in the conquest of America by highlighting idealism and bravery. The protagonist was a commoner who evolved to be a superhuman heroe, something poor conquistadores could relate and aspire to.

Intellectual

• Most books (around 70%) shipped to the New World dealt with religious matters such as treaties on morality, theological studies and liturgical manuals.

• The remaining 30% were fiction works (poetry, drama, novels) and classical humanities subjects such as law, history, politics.

• Books mostly acquired by members of clergy, nobles and professionals (bureaucrats, lawyers, physicians).

  • Studies in Spanish Law were particularly popular. This is because if no law existed in the Viceroyalty for a particular matter, one from Spain should be directly applied.

• The spread of cultural and intellectual movements was not only governed by ecclesiastical authority but also determined by politics.

  • This is because intellectual development advanced tremendously during the 1570s. This is the same decade which saw the foundation of colleges and establishment of printing press under the administration and approval of viceroy Toledo.

Cross-cultural exchange

• Cultural exchange is evident through syncretism, which combines Andean and European elements in various spheres. This is more commonly exhibited in the arts and religious holidays or festivals.

• Escuela Cuzqueña

  • Utilised European methods such as egg tempera, oil paintings and design with golden motifs however the subjects depicted were inspired by Andean elements. Moreover, students were mostly of native or mestizo descent.

• Religious festivities (e.g. Corpus Christi)

  • Highlighted past festivities. The Christian festivity is celebrated around the same time of the Inca tradition of Onqoy Mita, a veneration to forebears mommies (Mallquis). Organising a procession was the purest form of venerating Christ’s body.

• Despite the foundation colleges and flourishing printing press business, there was little research into the American continent, its pre-Columbian culture and populations because books were a way to keep in touch with European culture and ideology and not amass more knowledge.

Scientific and technological developments; social and cultural impact of those developments

• Scientific knowledge focused on areas like cosmography and natural medicine. Despite reluctance to investigate Pre-Columbian cultures, the use of American medicinal plants, herbs and fruits was widely encouraged, as seen in Sevillian physician Nicolas Monardes’ book Historia medicinal.

• Technological knowledge mainly concerned metallurgy, given mining accounted for the biggest economic sector.

  • This meant indigenous knowledge and methods to refine metals was unnecessary. Natives were sidelined to work on mines while Spaniards exerted more control on the mining process.

• An effective trading and navigation route was set up, mainly to export that retrieved from mine back to Spain. 

  • Naval technology helped create wealthy merchants. By acting as brokers of mine owners and setting up wholesale of smaller retailers, some individuals amassed fortunes of 500,000 to one million pesos in a time when 20-50 pesos a month was an adequate wage.

  • Cloth manufacture, although a small industry, was lucrative and enjoyed a good reputation due its quality. This industry was ‘consistently encouraged’ by Spaniards and relied on Indigenous labour and heritage, who worked in Obrajes (workshops).

    • This was likely the only industry which did not use Indian labour to exploit it but rather due the skills they could incorporate.

Role and significance of key intellectual/scientific figures

Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala (b. 1534 - d. 1615)

• Born into a family of Inca nobility descendent.

• Proficiency in Spanish and other languages led him to work as an administrator and scribe in the colonial government. 

• Helped illustrate friar Martin de Murúa’s chronicles Historia general del Piru (General History of Peru) and Historia del origen y genealogia de los reyes Incas del Piru (History of the origin and genealogy of the Inka Kings of Peru).

  • During this time, Guaman Poma was able to access his library, influencing information and drawing depicted in his future New Chronicle.

Significance and legacy

• Wrote and illustrated a lengthy chronicle titled El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno (The First New Chronicle and Good Government), (finished 1615) which was addressed to the King of Spain, Philip II.

• Poma de Ayala highlighted the cultural complexities and traditions of the Inca Empire, in an attempt to legitimise it as a respectable Kingdom, compared to those in Europe. Furthermore, he highlights abuses committed by colonial authorities.

  • His thesis also advocates for a reform in government, arguing abuses, exploitation and illness will mean the downfall of Andean civilization and persuading the King, the Inca Kingdom is capable of governing on its own.

• Although this never reached the monarch, his significance transcends its period. The  chronicle is currently used by historians as a valid (although with precautions, minding its biased nature) primary source, one of the first to be produced by an indigenous person.

• Its discussion of Inca culture is used to illustrate modern-day understanding of this time period and the culture’s organisation and practices.

Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (b. 1539 – d. 1616)

• Born as Gomez Suarez de Figueroa, the son of Spanish conquistador Sebastian Garcilaso de la Vega and an Incan princess (palla) Palla Chimpu Ocllo.

  • He changed his name during adulthood, where he reaffirmed his mixed identity.

• First mestizo author to publish in Spanish.

• He previously translated European humanist works into Spanish. For instance Leone Ebreo’s Dialoghi d’amore (1535) with its Renaissance Neoplatonic discourse influenced the structure of his future work.

  • Leone’s work reflected that dialogue was the pillar of a successful loving relationship. De La Vega used this concept to emphasise Inca leaders engaged in dialogue which resulted in long-term royalty when conquering other indigenous groups. Thus, this legitimises a non-violent, persuasive form of conquest.

Significance and legacy

• Particular identity as mestizo meant he had a unique perspective of cultural history of the Incas as well as Spanish customs. He witnessed first hand events of Spanish conquest while growing up.

• Published Comentarios reales de los Incas (Royal commentaries of the Incas) in 1609, which depicted an alternative mode of conquest. Inca emperors were shown to practise ‘peaceful imperialism’ who often engaged in constant dialogue and interaction with conquered subjects. Additionally, his work was meant to function as an exemplum, a document which taught readers ‘a lesson from history and to incite those readers to act on that lesson’

• De La Vega aimed his work to be read by an educated Spanish man or letrado, who was trained in humanities and often worked in colonial bureaucracy.

  • It was expected that letrados, aware of the common discourse of Spanish conquest (triumph of civilization against barbarism), could compare with the alternative Incan peaceful conquest methods and moreover, the Incas and Spaniards in ‘their roles as conquerors.’

• The Spanish conquest of the Americas was depicted as an epic narrative, where the hero was superior, more civilised therefore he had legitimate power to rule over those conquered. 

  • De La Vega also manipulated the ‘gendered filter’ depicted in tales of Conquest. This was done by demanding the reader to identify with a different kind of male identity which practised dialogue and negotiation, which were ideas related to female notions.

Bartolomé De Las Casas ( b. 1474 or 1484 – d. 1566)

• Spanish theologian and priest.

• Former encomendero in the Caribbean where he witnessed abuses.

• Advocate for more protective laws and better treatment of the Indians. He later became the face of the movement which motivated the amendment of the Laws of Burgos (1517) through the New Laws (1542)

Significance and legacy

• Advocacy led to some concrete solutions, such as influencing the passing of the New Laws. De Las Casas’ ideas which were directly transferred included:

  • No justification for enslavement

  • Immediate end to unfair wages and job

• While the common European settler used the Aristotelian idea of ‘natural slave’ to justify subjugation of Amerindians, De Las Casas’ views and ideas reopened the Indian question debate, inspiring the Valladolid debate (1550-1551) which was the first discuss right and treatment of indigenous population in European history.

Religious change:

Religion and the state: interactions and relationships; religion as a support or a challenge to the state

• Taqui Onqoy (Taki Unquy) movement:

  •  Indigenous population posed opposition to Christianization

  • Members (which amounted to around 8,000 Christianized Indians) would meet in huacas and perform ceremonies where they simulated to ‘renounce’ their new faith and European ways. Members would normally dance, a practice which was outlawed (first mentioned in the Laws of Burgos (1512).

  • This represented a danger to the Spanish missionaries because they couldn't measure how reliable and effective their conversions were.

  • These practices were discovered by clergyman Cristobal de Abornoz around 1570. He destroyed huacas and punished leaders, methods which would be used in the future extirpación de idolatrias campaigns.

• Inquisition (1570)

  • Established with the arrival of viceroy Francisco de Toledo.

  • Although indigenous populations were exempted, Toledo was a proponent of the argument that Indigenous leaders and priests were the guardians of ancient rites which prevented a proper Christianization.

• Consensus was reached, stating indigenous populations were exempt because they were new converts. This institution, thus, was used to control and scrutinise Spanish colonist behaviour. 

  • Previously, legal framework through the enactment of laws, treaties and contracts have failed to motivate Spaniards to comply with the Crown’s demands. 

  • This was especially true when Pizarro failed to send the royal ransom and executed Atahualpa, overlooking the laws of the Siete Partidas. These demanded him to send the full ransom and entitled the crown to take the Sapa Inca as captive ‘property’ of the Spanish king.

    • The use of religion as a framework as well as the accusations of heresy could potentially instil fear and motivate compliance.

Religious expansion and conversion

• In the early stages of the conquest, missionaries blended Christian concepts with indigenous cultural imagery. This practice was later known as syncretism.

• Although some missionaries made the effort to learn native languages, this practice was more effective since the use of images and metaphors illustrated Christian concepts that were completely foreign.

  • For instance, friars would point out the presence of Christian symbols in endemic Andean nature. The condor, when extending their wings, formed a shape similar to the cross. This, they argued, represented ‘God’s ownership’ and omnipresence within the highlands.

• A more aggressive and pervasive attempt was the extirpación de idolatrias campaigns.

• These campaigns consisted in a group of various institutions (School Of Caciques, reductions of priests) which would instil European and Christian values within Indigenous populations.

  • For instance, the School of caciques aimed to teach descendants of nobility in order to guarantee alliance to the crown and knowledge of the administrative schemes of the viceroyalty.

• The most common practice or institutions were the ‘visits’ (vistas) made by a visitador de idolatrias (appointed by the archbishop of Lima), a notary and prosecutor. 

  • This group normally travelled to towns, encouraging people to denounce ancient rites that were taking place. Those denouncing could make an anonymous claim and would be exempt from punishment.

  • The accused would normally be interrogated and tortured if they did not confess their crimes. These procedures were carried out based on claims with little or no evidence.

    • Moreover, most natives did not speak Spanish. Even if the declaration were made by an interpreter, this was normally vulnerable to misunderstandings and fabrications.

• The mechanisms used in the extirpación (such as anonymous claims and tortures in order to confess) were based on practices from the Inquisition. So while natives were exempted, the procedures and punishments were virtually equal.

• Nonetheless, the extirpaciones did not have the desired amount of conversions although this is hard to predict since most accounts are written by clergymen, which had varying perceptions.

Religious division, conflict, discrimination and persecution

‘The Indian Question’

• Prior to the conquest, the Laws of Burgos (1512) were enacted and are considered the first legal approach to the ‘Indian question’. These advocated for a right treatment and granted indigenous people the right to convert to Christianity.

  • However, enforcing these laws was complicated given the distance. Furthermore, these were ineffective efforts to curtail the worst excesses of the colonists in the Caribbean.

• Friar Bartolomé de las Casas, who had witnessed the mistreatments first hand during his time at Hispaniola island, called for a reform.

• The New Laws (1542) would be a supposed amendment to the 1512 laws by dealing with exploitation and mistreatment of indigenous populations. However these are considered ineffective for a number of reasons.

  • The attempted enactment was disastrous. After viceroy Blasco Nunez Vela arrived in 1544, a civil war broke out.

• Moreover, it was difficult to enforce these laws due to the distance between the Court and the new territories. Individuals also easily overlooked the laws since the general European perception regarded indigenous through Aristotle’s idea of ‘natural slaves’. 

  • Amerindians had Aristotelian-defined characteristics of barbarians, the Spaniards had a moral obligation to rule in the Americas.

Extirpación de Idolatrías

• While the methods of persecution and torture did inspire fear amongst the native population, the extirpacion institution did not have the same control over the population as the Inquisition amongst Spaniards.

  • This was mainly because the complaints were normally given to a visitador, who was a Spaniard, ultimately a foreigner.

• Since these campaigns carried out destruction of huacas (old places of worship), it was not only a way to erase rites and religious practices but also a direct attack to indigenous culture at large.

• On a broad sense, extirpaciones were able to be carried out because it was a legitimate institution, which received the support of the Archbishop and Viceroy. In this sense, persecution was an institutional practice which was also encouraged by the highest authorities.