EOC STUDY GUIDE

Unit 1

1. List each of the 8 characteristics of life, then give an example of each.

2. . Students are arguing whether or not a virus is a living thing.  Using what you know about life, make an argument for whether a virus is living or nonliving.

Viruses are not composed of cells, so would be classified as nonliving.  They do have many characteristics of living things, but not all.

Unit 2

3. List the four types of macromolecules, and what elements can be found in each type.

Carbohydrates: C, H, O

Proteins: C, H, O, N, sometimes S

Lipids: C, H, O

Nucleic acids: C, H, O, N, P

4. Explain what monomers and polymers are and how they makeup a macromolecule.

Monomers are small subunits that can bond together into long chains called polymers.

5. Identify the monomer and polymer for each type of macromolecule.

 Monomer listed 1st, polymer listed 2nd

Carbohydrates:  monosaccharide, polysaccharide

Proteins: amino acids, polypeptide

Lipids:  made up of fatty acids and glycerides

Nucleic acids: nucleotide, polynucleotide

6. Identify the function of each macromolecule type.

Carbohydrates: main source of energy

Proteins: Control rate of reactions, regulate cell processes, transport substances, fight diseases, provide structure

Lipids: Used for storage of energy and membrane barriers including cell membrane

Nucleic acids: Used to store and transmit genetic information.

7. If your diet is lacking in a macromolecule type, what can your body do to ensure it has what is needed?

Your body may break down the substances it does have to create what is missing (when possible).

8. Food labels contain 3 out of the 4 macromolecule types, why do they not contain the fourth type?  How does your body get what it needs to create the fourth type?

Food labels do not contain nucleic acids since it is not used for nutrition, but rather to store and transfer genetic information. They are contained in all of our foods. 

9. One type of protein is an enzyme, what is the function of an enzyme?

Enzymes speed up chemical reactions without being used in the reaction.

10. What is an active site on an enzyme?

The active site on an enzyme is the location that a substrate binds to on the enzyme.  It is specifically shaped to fit the substrate.

11. What happens to the active site on an enzyme when it is denatured?

The active site is changed so that the substrate can no longer bind to the enzyme.

12. What can cause an enzyme to not work as effectively?

Factors that affect enzymes include temperature, pH, concentration, and inhibitors.

13. Draw an energy diagram for the progress of a reaction, label the reactants, products and activation energy on your diagram.

14. When an enzyme is added, how does that change the graph you drew above?  What factors change?  What stays the same?

An enzyme lowers the activation energy, but does not change the energy of the products or reactants.

15. Explain the relationship between a substrate and active site on an enzyme.

A substrate is specifically shaped and that shape fits into an enzyme like a puzzle piece.

16. How do inhibitors affect enzymes?  What impact do they have on a substrate?

Inhibitors block the active site on an enzyme preventing a substrate from binding to the active site.

17. Diffusion, Osmosis, and facilitated diffusion are all passive processes, explain the difference between the three.

-Diffusion is the movement of particles from areas of high concentration to areas of lower concentration.

-Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane

-Facilitated diffusion is the movement of particles from areas of high concentration to areas of lower concentration through a membrane protein (channel or carrier).

18. What similarities do diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion share?

All three involve the movement of a substance from high concentration to low concentration.

19. What is active transport?  What is required for active transport?

Active transport is the movement of particles from low concentration to high concentration.  Energy and a (carrier) protein are required for active transport.

20. What types of molecules can be transported through a cell membrane by diffusion?

Nonpolar and small polar molecules can diffuse through a cell membrane

21. What types of molecules can be transported through a cell membrane by facilitate diffusion?

Large polar molecules and ions

22. Label the following diagram with polar head, nonpolar tail, channel protein, phospholipid.

23. On the diagram again, label three locations polar molecules could be found.  Also label a nonpolar region.

24. Describe what happens to a cell when it is placed in a hypotonic solution.

A cell in a hypotonic solution will have water move into the cell causing it to swell and increase in size/mass.

25. Describe what happens to a cell when it is placed in a hypertonic solution.

A cell in a hypertonic solution will have water move out of the cell causing it to shrink and decrease in size/mass

26. Describe what happens to a cell when it is placed in an isotonic solution.

A cell in an isotonic solution will have the same amount of water move into and out of the cell causing it to remain the same size/mass.

27. For each scenario below, complete the diagram with an arrow to show the movement and fill in any blanks.

Unit 3

28. How are prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells different?  If you are looking at a cell how can you determine if it is prokaryotic or eukaryotic?

Prokaryotic cell do not have a nucleus or membrane bound organelles.  Prokaryotic cells are also smaller than eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells do have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles such as mitochondria.  Looking at a cell you would look for the presence of a nucleus to determine if it is prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

29. What do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have in common?

Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a cell membrane, ribosomes, vacuoles, and could have a cell wall.

30. Eukaryotic cells can be described as animal or plant cells, how do these eukaryotic cells differ?

Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts and a large central vacuoles while animal cells do not.  Animal cells have lysosomes and centrioles while most plant cells do not

31. Some plant cells have very few chloroplasts while others have a lot of chloroplasts.  What do you think those with a lot of chloroplasts may do a lot of?

Plant cells with a lot of chloroplast will be able to convert my sunlight to chemical energy through photosynthesis than those cells with less chloroplasts.

32. How are vacuoles different in plant cells compared to vacuoles in animal cells?  What are they called in plant cells?

Plant cells typically have a central vacuole, which is a single large vacuole that mainly stores water inside the plant cell.  Animal cells typically have many small vacoules throughout the cell.

33. Show the levels of organization from an organelle to an organism to biosphere.

Organelles -> cell -> tissue -> organ -> organ system -> organism/Species->Population-> Community->Ecosystem->Biome->Biosphere

34. What is the difference between a tissue and an organ?

Tissues are groups of cells working together while an organ is a group of tissues working together to perform a function.

35. Give examples of an organ.  Give examples of an organ system.

Organ: Heart, Brain, Lungs, Liver, Pancreas, Kidneys, etc

Organ System: Digestive System, Muscular System, Nervous System, etc

36. Be able to describe the function and type of cell each of the following organelles are found in.

1. Mitochondria

Produces energy for the cell (in the form of ATP), found in all Eukaryotic cells (plants and animals)

2. Chloroplast

Converts sunlight to chemical through photosynthesis, found in plant cells

3. Ribosome

Produces proteins (protein synthesis), found in all cells

4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Site of protein and lipid production, transports proteins and lipids, detoxifies,  found in all Eukaryotic cells (plants and animals)

5. Golgi Body

Assembles and Packages proteins,  found in all Eukaryotic cells (plants and animals)

6. Lysosome

Breaks down materials in the cell, removes waste from cell, found in mostly animal cells

7. Nucleus

Control center of the cell, contains genetic information (DNA),  found in all Eukaryotic cells (plants and animals)

8. Centrioles

Serve as cell skeletal system, aid in cell division, found mostly in animal cells

9. Cell Membrane

Regulates material entering and leaving cell, found in all cells

10. Cell Wall

Provides structure, protection, and strength for cell, found in prokaryotic and plant cells

11. Cytoplasm

Fluid within the cell, holds structures in place, found in all cells

37. Label the parts in the cell below, is this an animal or plant cell?    ANIMAL____

38. Fill in the venn diagram comparing and contrasting prokaryotic, plant and animal cells.

39. Label the organelles in the cell below.  What type of cell is it? _____PLANT_______

Unit 4

40. What is photosynthesis?  

41. What types of cells conduct photosynthesis?  Where in the cell does it take place?

42. What are the reactants for photosynthesis?  Be able to describe how changes to the reactants and effect the photosynthesis process.

43. What are the products of photosynthesis?  What is the main goal product of photosynthesis?

44. Write out the complete photosynthesis reaction.

45. The graphs below show the effect of various factors on oxygen concentration in a plant.  For each graph, explain how the changing conditions relates to changing rates of photosynthesis. 

51. Why are plants typically green?

52. What are pigments used for? 

53. What is cell respiration?

54. What types of cells conduct cellular respiration?  Where in the cell does it take place?

55. What are the reactants for cell respiration?  Where do they come from?

56. What are the products of cell respiration?  What is the main goal product of cell respiration? 

57. Write out the complete cellular respiration reaction.

58. What is needed for aerobic respiration?  What are advantages and disadvantages of aerobic respiration?

59. What is anaerobic respiration?  What are advantages and disadvantages of anaerobic respiration?

60. If a cell had to choose between aerobic and anaerobic respiration, which would you choose?  Why? 

61. What type of energy can be used by the cell?  When in cell respiration is most of it produced?

62. Describe the transfer of energy beginning at the sun, then being used by your cell.

63. What factors directly affect photosynthesis?

64. What factors directly affect cell respiration?

65. Complete the table below.

Unit 5

66. Terms to know:

1. Chromosome

Long thicken piece of DNA, typically found in the nucleus of a cell.  Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

2. Sister Chromatid

Identical copies of DNA created from DNA replication, each single copy is a sister chromatid to its replicated pair

3. Homologous Chromosomes

Pairs of chromosomes that code for the same trait, but may have different codes (alleles)

4. Tetrad

A pair of homologous chromosomes, form during prophase 1 of meiosis

5. Crossing over

Exchange of portions of homologous chromosomes during meiosis 1

6. Diploid

A cell with 2 copies of each chromosome

7. Haploid

A cell with 1 copy of each chromosome

8. Somatic Cells

Body cells, contain 2 copies of each chromosome

9. Gametes

Sex cells, contain 1 copy of each chromosome

10. Zygote 

Diploid cell created from the fusion of two gametes.  First cell formed in sexual reproduction for most organsims.

11. Cell Differentiation

The process of a cell transitioning from one type (stem cell) to a specialized type 

12. Stem cells

Unspecialized cells that can change into a specialized cell type through cell differentiation 

67. Interphase is broken down into 3 stages, what happens during each one of those stages.

G1 = cell growth

S = DNA replication

G2 = cell growth and preparing for division

68. The fourth stage of the cell cycle is mitosis.  What happens during mitosis?  What type of cell is created in mitosis, How many?

Nucleus of the cell divides forming 2 identical daughter cells.  Creates somatic or body cells.

69. What is cytokinesis?

Separation and division of cytoplasm, cell membrane, and organelles resulting in formation of 2 cells.

70. What happens when regulation of the cell cycle is lost and cells can replicated uncontrollably?

Cancer, development of tumors

71. What is cancer at the cellular level?

72. How can your body develop specialized cells?  What do cells begin as before they become specialized?

Body develops specialized cells through cell differentiation.  Cells begin as stem cells before becoming specalized.

73. What does the surface area to volume ratio tell you about a cell?  How do you determine the surface to volume ratio of an object/cell?

Surface area to volume ratio describes the amount of space or area inside of the cell compared to the amount of the cell touching it’s surrounding.  The smaller the surface area to volume ratio, the harder it is for a cell to move in and out materials. To determine, divide surface area by volume.

74. How are haploid and diploid cells different?  Give an example of each type.

-Haploid cells have one copy of each chromosome, diploid cells have two copies of each chromosome

-Sex cells such as sperm and egg are haploid.

-Body or somatic cells are diploid.

75. What type of cells are produced through Meiosis?  How many are produced?

Sex cells (sperm or egg) 

Each parent cell produces 4 cells

76. How is prophase I in meiosis different from prophase in mitosis? 

In prophase I of meiosis homologous chromosomes pair up and form tetrads and crossing over may occur.  Prophase in mitosis does not have homologous pairs

77. During metaphase I what lines up in the center of the cell?  Draw a cell in metaphase I.

Homologous chromosomes or tetrads

78. What happens before mitosis and meiosis I that does not occur before meiosis II?

DNA replication

79. How is prophase II different from prophase I?  

No homologous chromosomes to pair up

No crossing over takes place

80. Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis including chromosome numbers, number of cell divisions, number and types of cells created.

Mitosis: creates 2 diploid daughter cells from one diploid parent cell through in 1 division.  Used to create somatic or body cells

Meiosis: Creates 4 haploid cells from one diploid parent cell through 2 divisions.  Used to create sex cells

81. What is crossing over?  In what type of division does it occur?

Exchange of portions of homologous chromosomes.  Happens in Meiosis during Prophase 1.

82. Compare and contrast sexual and asexual reproduction.  What are advantages and disadvantages of each?

Sexual reproduction: Two parents (typically). Slower process that requires more energy but creates genetic diversity which allows organisms to better adapt to changes in the environment

Asexual reproduction: One parent. Faster process that requires less energy but does not create genetic diversity

Unit 6

83. Terms to know:  Define each of the following terms

    1. Genetics 

Study of biological inheritance patterns and variation in organisms

2. Inheritance

the process in which genetic information is passed from parent to offspring

3. Gene

a region of DNA that encodes function, typically a region of DNA that codes for a specific protein

4. Allele

Different versions of the same gene

5. Dominant

Allele that shows up in physical trait in individual if they have at least one copy, it is dominant over recessive alleles. Represented by capital letter (A, H, E)

6. Recessive

allele that only shows up if all copies of the gene are the same, will be masked by dominant allele if it is present.  Represented by lowercase letter (a, h, e)

7. Genotype

the genetic makeup of an individual.  The alleles in an individual’s DNA.  Typically have two alleles for each gene.

8. Phenotype

Individual observable traits.  Caused by the allele being expressed in the individual

9. Homozygous

having two copies of the same allele for the same gene (BB, bb)

10. Heterozygous

having two different alleles for the same gene (Bb)

11. Pedigree

Genetic representation of a family tree.  Shows passing of traits from generation to generation.  Often used to determine the mode of inheritance of a disease or trait.

12. Sex linked Trait

Traits found on the sex chromosomes. Different genes are found on the X and Y chromosomes.  Typically examine traits on the X chromosome

13. Carrier

An individual that is heterozygous for a trait.  Carrier of recessive allele as they have the allele but do not display the traits for that allele.

84. A homozygous dominant blue flower (BB) is crossed with a heterozygous flower.  What is the genotypic and phenotypic ratio of the offspring produced (white is recessive)?

2 BB : 2 Bb (50% BB : 50% Bb)

4 Blue flowers (100% blue flowers)

85. A heterozygous green pea plant is crossed with a homozygous recessive yellow pea plant.   What is the probability that they produce a green pea plant?

50% green pea plant (Gg or GG)

86. A homozygous dominant person with a widow’s peak has a baby with a homozygous recessive no widow peak person.  What is the probability that their baby will have a widow’s peak?

100% widow’s peak (HH or Hh)

87. Explain how two individuals that do neither have a trait can produce an offspring with that trait.

If both parents are carriers (heterozygous) they both display the dominant trait, but have a copy of the recessive allele.  If both parents pass the recessive allele to the offspring, then the offspring will display the recessive trai

88. Why are males more likely to process a recessive sex linked trait than females?

Females have two copies of the X chromosome (XX) while males only have one copy (XY).  Since the male only has one copy they always display the trait that they posses.  Males can never be carriers of sex linked traits.

89. Red green colorblindness is a sex linked trait.  Colorblindness is a recessive trait.  If a colorblind male has kids with a homozygous dominant normal vision female, what is the probability of having a color blind son?  Color blind daughter?

0% colorblind males (X^bY)

0% colorblind female (X^bX^b)

90. A heterozygous normal vision mom has a kid with a normal vision dad.  What is the probability of having a color blind son?  Color blind daughter?

50% colorblind son (X^bY)

0% colorblind daughter (X^bX^b)

91. A normal vision female has a kid with a normal vision male.  The kid is red-green color blind.  How is this possible?  Do you know the sex of the child?

The mom would have to be a carrier for the colorblind allele.  The dad has to have the normal allele and his second chromosome is an X.  If the mom is a carrier, so then has a 50% chance of passing the recessive allele to a son, who would then receive a Y from dad.  Only a son would be colorblind.  All daughters receive a dominant allele from dad.

92. The image below shows a pedigree for hair on fingers.  No hair on fingers are shaded and hairy fingers are unshaded.

What is the phenotype of the mom in the first generation on the right hand side?

No hair on fingers

93. Is hairy fingers a dominant or recessive trait?  How do you know?

Recessive, the two parents in the first generation that are hairy finger only have hairy finger kids, then the mixed couple in the 2nd generation had 5 kids and none of them received the hairy finger trait.

94. What is the genotype of the last son of the hairy finger first generation parents? How do you know?

ff, since he has the recessive trait he has to be homozygous recessive.

95. Label the genotype for each person on the pedigree based on your answer from the previous question.  If there is more than one possibility, list all possible genotypes for that individual.

96. If the hairy finger male from the 3rd generation had a kid with a homozygous dominant female, what would be the probability of their child having a hairy fingers?  Show the punnett square for this cross.

0% hairy finger (ff), 100% no hair on fingers

97. What process is used to create the sex cells used in reproduction between two individuals?

Meiosis is used to create sex cells

Unit 7

98. Describe the physical structure of DNA.

DNA is a double helix structure composed of two complementary strands. Each strand consists of nucleotides with a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine).

99. What does DNA code for?

DNA codes for proteins.  Each gene creates a polypeptide which then can individually or combine with others to form a protein.

100. Where is DNA found in the cell?  What is a chromosome?

DNA is found in the nucleus of a cell.  A chromosome is a condensed and organized structure of DNA, containing genes.

101. What three parts are needed to make up a nucleotide?  

Phosphate group, sugar (deoxyribose), and a nitrogenous base (A,C, G, T)

102. Chargaff’s Rule states what nitrogenous bases always pair with one another?

Adenine with Thymine (A =T)

Cytosine with Guanine (C= G)

103. If the bases in DNA in a cell contains 24.3% adenine, what percentage of the DNA will be thymine?  

24.3%, Adenine always pairs with thymine, so they should have the same amount present in a DNA strand.

B. What percentage of the bases in that DNA then will be guanine?

25.7%

(24.3 * 2) = 48.6 %

100 - 48.6 = 51.4%

51.4 / 2 = 25.7%

104. What forms the backbone of DNA structure?

Phosphate group and deoxyribose

105. During what processes does DNA replication take place?  Which one is involved in sexual reproduction?

Mitosis and Meiosis 1.  Meiosis 1 is involved in sexual reproduction, mitosis is asexual reproduction

B. What step in the process does it take place during?

Interphase (S phase)

106. DNA replication is said to be semiconservative, what is meant by semiconservative?

Each new DNA molecule consists of one original strand and one newly synthesized strand.

107. DNA replication involves several different enzymes.  Tell the role of each enzyme listed below in DNA replication.

1. DNA helicase Unzips and unwinds DNA strand

2. DNA polymerase Adds nucleotides to DNA strand.  Checks for errors in newly created strand

3. DNA ligase Fixes gaps in the DNA molecule’s back bone after replication has occurred and rebuilds the backbone of DNA 

108. What is it called if the wrong nucleotide is placed in DNA replication?  What is done to try to prevent that for occuring?

Mutation, DNA polymerase proofreads newly added sequences to check for errors and correct.

109. If you have the DNA sequence CCA TCG GGA TAT, what DNA sequence will the complementary strand (strand that pairs up) with the given sequence have?

GGT AGC CCT ATA

110. A portion of DNA with the sequence TAT GAA CCA goes through DNA replication.  What would be the sequence of the new strand produced through DNA replication?

TAT GAA CCA, The same sequence since it is replicated.

Unit 8

111. Create a venn diagram to compare and contrast DNA and RNA.

112. What is protein synthesis?   

Process of creating proteins.  Involves transcription and translation.

113. Describe the relationship between genes, chromosomes and proteins.

Chromosomes contain multiple genes that code for proteins.  Genes codes for proteins that produce physical traits.

114. What is the central dogma of molecular biology?

Genetic Information flows from a gene (DNA) to RNA to a Protein

Involves two steps: Transcription and Translation

115. Protein synthesis involves two major steps,  What are those steps and where does each one take place?

Transcription, takes place in the nucleus

Translation, takes place at the ribosome

116. What happens during Transcription?  What type of molecules are involved? What enzyme is used?

Creates mRNA complementary to DNA sequence

RNA polymerase (an enzyme) binds to a DNA sequence and creates mRNA from a single gene

117. What happens during translation?  What type of molecules are involved?

Messenger RNA codes for amino acids that make up a protein

mRNA codons pair with tRNA anticodons to bring amino acids to the ribosome

As the ribosome moves down the mRNA the amino acids are bonded together to form a chain of amino acids.

118. Create a flow chart of protein, mRNA, DNA, tRNA, amino acids.

DNA -> mRNA -> tRNA -> amino acids -> protein

119. What is a codon?  What is the importance of a codon?

A codon is a sequence of 3 mRNA nucleotides that codes for an amino acid

120. What is an anticodon?  What does an anticodon do?

An anticodon is a sequence of 3 tRNA nucleotides that pairs with an mRNA codon to bring an amino acid to the ribosome.

121. What type of bond is formed between amino acids?  How does a chain of amino acids form a protein?

Peptide bond. Once a stop codon is reached, the protein is released from the ribosome and folds to form a protein.

122. Given the following DNA sequence determine the amino acid sequence chain produced.

C C A T A C T T G G C A T A G A T T C C T

123. Given the following chain of amino acids, determine a possible DNA sequence that would produce this chain.

Proline - Cysteine - Alanine - Glycine

124. Compare gene mutations and chromosomal mutations.  Which type tends to be more lethal? Why?

-Gene mutations occur at a single point in the DNA sequence affecting a single gene and thus single protein.. 

-Chromosomal mutations occur over a large region of DNA affecting multiple genes and thus multiple proteins.

Chromosomal mutations tend to be more lethal since they affect more proteins.

125. What can cause mutations?

-Errors during DNA replication

-Environmental factors such as radiation, chemicals, or infectious agents (viruses, etc).

126. As a result of mutations, the effect on the amino acid sequence can be silent, missense, nonsense, or a frameshift.  Identify how you can tell each one of these apart.

-Silent mutation - does not change the amino acid produced

-Missense mutation - changes the amino acid produced and effects the protein

-Nonsense mutation - changes code to a STOP codon, stopping the amino acid being produced and effecting the protein

-Frameshift mutation - changes the amino acid and all subsequent amino acids affecting the protein

127. Which of the effects of mutations from the previous question is most likely to have the least impact on the protein created?  Why?

Silent mutation.  A silent mutation does not change the amino acid sequence, so the protein will still fold and function normally.

128. Explain how a change in DNA results in changes to proteins and thus physical traits.

Changes in DNA can result in a change to the amino acid sequence.  If the amino acid sequence is changed, the protein may not fold and function properly.  If the protein is not functioning properly it will affect physical traits.

129. Mutations can occur in both gametes (sex) and somatic (body) cells.  Explain how the location will affect an organism differently?   Which type can be inherited? 

-Mutation that occur in a gamete (sex cell) are passed on to all cells in an individual fertilized from that sex cell

-Mutations in a body cell only affect cells in that region and are not passed onto offspring.

-Mutations in gametes are inherited.

Unit 9

130. How were conditions on early earth different from today?  How did that affect what type of organisms were present?

Early earth was inhospitable to life that we know today.  It had a different atmosphere.  It wasn’t until single cell life started producing oxygen gas and ozone that more complex organisms evolved.  As the Earth became more like Earth today, life diversified to this point. 

131. How are fossils used as evidence of natural selection?

Fossils for organisms generally get simpler as you go deeper in rock strata.  This supports the idea that organisms grew increasingly complicated over time. Fossils show changes in species over time. They also provide a record of past individuals/ species and their adaptations.

132. What is evolution?

Evolution is the process by which A change in the gene pool over time. This involves A build-up of adaptations over time in a population. This can result in the emergence of new species.

133. How do organisms obtain new traits or adaptations?

Through random mutations.  Organisms are born with genes from both parents, but also sometimes new mutations.  These are sometimes beneficial and can make it more likely that organisms survive to reproduction (thus increasing the gene in the gene pool!). 

134. Darwin used natural selection to explain evolution.  What is natural selection?

Nature selects for traits that increase the chance of surviving to reproduction.  At the same time, nature selects against traits that reduce the chance of surviving to reproduction.

There are 5 tenets of natural selection:

• Organisms overproduce offspring

• There is variation in those offspring

• There is competition for resources (food, space, shelter, mates)

• Those with the best traits survive to reproduce and pass on their genes to offspring

• This happens over time

135. Darwin observed natural selection by looking at finches.  Explain what he noticed with the finch bird beaks.

Darwin noticed that finch bird beaks varied in size and shape depending on the type of food available on each island in the Galápagos. Beak characteristics were adapted to the specific food sources, demonstrating natural selection.

136. Part of natural selection is that limited resources are available.  Why is it necessary for limited resources (such as food, shelter, etc) exist in order for natural selection to occur?

Limited resources create competition among organisms, leading to a difference in survival and reproduction based on variations in traits. This competition drives natural selection by favoring individuals with traits best suited to acquire resources and survive in their environment.

137. Natural selection selects for a (genotype/phenotype) that is best adapted to an environment.  (Asexual/Sexual) reproduction produces more biodiversity.  (More/Less) biodiversity allows for organisms to adjust to changing environments.

Natural selection selects for phenotypes that are best adapted to an environment. Sexual reproduction produces more biodiversity. More biodiversity allows for organisms to adjust to changing environments.

138. What is biogeography and how does it support the theory of evolution?

Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. It supports the theory of evolution by showing patterns of species distribution that are consistent with evolutionary processes, such as migration, extinction, and adaptation to different environments.

139. Compare homologous structures and analogous structures.  Which is evidence of evolution?  Why?

Homologous structures are similar structures found in different species due to common ancestry, while analogous structures are similar structures that serve the same function but do not share a common evolutionary origin. Homologous structures are evidence of evolution because they indicate shared ancestry and divergent evolution.

140. Give two examples of homologous structures and explain why they are homologous.

Examples of homologous structures include the forelimbs of mammals (e.g., human arm, bat wing, whale flipper) and the pentadactyl (five digits) limb structure shared among various vertebrates. These structures have similar bone arrangements despite serving different functions, suggesting a common evolutionary origin.

141. Give one example of an analogous structure and explain why it is analogous.

An example of an analogous structure is the wings of birds and the wings of insects. These structures serve the same function (flight) but have different evolutionary origins. Bird wings are modified forelimbs, while insect wings are extensions of the exoskeleton. The trait did not originate in a common ancestor.

142. What is a vestigial structure?  Why is it evidence of evolution?

A vestigial structure is a structure that has lost its original function in the course of evolution. It is evidence of evolution because it suggests that the organism's ancestors once had a use for the structure, but it became unnecessary as the organism's environment or behavior changed.

143. How does a universal genetic code support the theory of evolution?

The universal genetic code, where DNA codes work the same in all organisms, supports the theory of evolution by showing a common ancestry among all living organisms. This shared genetic code suggests a common evolutionary origin and descent from a common ancestor.

144. The image below shows embryonic development of many different organisms.  Compare and contrasts the fetuses in each stage looking at specific traits such as gill slits, tails, fore-limb buds, etc.

The embryos shown have many common traits that adults within those organisms lack.  This is true of gills, tails, and limb buds.  For example, a dolphin embryo has leg buds the same as a rabbit, but the dolphin’s leg buds disappear in development.  This indicates common ancestry and also tells us dolphin’s ancestors were other tetrapods with 4 limbs.

145. How does comparative embryology support the theory of evolution?

Comparative embryology supports the theory of evolution by showing similarities in early developmental stages among different species. These similarities suggest a shared evolutionary history and common ancestry.

146. Give examples of biotic factors that can change an environment and lead to evolution.

Examples of biotic factors include predation, competition for resources, symbiotic relationships, and the introduction of new species through migration or human activities.

147. Give examples of abiotic factors that can change an environment and lead to evolution.

Examples of abiotic factors include climate change, geological events, natural disasters, changes in temperature or precipitation patterns, and alterations in soil composition or pH.

148. What results can a changing environment have on a population or species?

A changing environment can lead to adaptation through natural selection, migration to new habitats, changes in population size, shifts in species distributions, and, in extreme cases, extinction of less adaptable individuals or entire species

149. How do humans affect and change the environment?  What impact does this have on other organisms?

Humans affect and change the environment through activities such as deforestation, pollution, habitat destruction, urbanization, overfishing, and introduction of invasive species. These activities can have negative impacts on other organisms, leading to habitat loss, declines in biodiversity, disruption of ecosystems, and extinction of species.  Changes that are substantial and occur over a short period of time are more likely to cause the loss of a species in an area.

150. What is artificial selection?  Why do humans use artificial selection?

Artificial selection is the selective breeding of organisms by humans for desirable traits. Humans use artificial selection to produce organisms with specific characteristics for agriculture, companionship, research, or aesthetic purposes.

151. Give examples of artificial selection.

Examples of artificial selection include the breeding of dogs for specific traits like size, temperament, or specialized skills (e.g., herding, hunting), the breeding of crops for higher yield, resistance to pests, or specific nutritional qualities, and the breeding of livestock for desired meat or dairy production.

152. The image below shows relationships between various organisms.  On the image it labels traits found in each organism.  Explain how this image shows descent with modification.

All of the organisms shown are related to each other.  As you move across the cladogram, you see the addition of new (derived) traits; however, all of the organisms share traits and are all related.  As you move higher in the evolutionary tree, there is the addition of new traits.  These organisms are descended but with new traits (descent with modification).

153. From the image above would you expect the turtle salamander or turtle and lamprey to have more similar DNA?  Why?

Turtle and salamander.  They have less branching points between each other (just one) as opposed to the lamprey and the turtle (three).  Organisms closer together on the cladogram share more traits and thus more DNA.  The turtle and the salamander are more closely related.

154. The graph below shows peppered moth coloration over several years.  The moths captured can be used to estimate the population size, with higher capture rates indicating higher populations.

What can you say about the light moth coloration adaptation in this area in terms of natural selection?

Being a light-colored moth is a selective disadvantage in this example.  We see the decline of that phenotype over time. 

155. What type of moth did the environment select for?  

Nature is selecting for dark-colored moths. 

156. In order for the environment to select for a different moth coloration what would have had to happen?

In order for the environment to select for a different moth coloration, there would need to be a change in environmental conditions, such as changes in tree bark color or shifts in predation pressure, that favored a different color morph of the moth population.

Unit 10

157. What is a biome?  What biotic and abiotic factors affect a biome?

A distinct geographical region with specific climate, vegetation, and animal life. 

Abiotic Factors include but not limited to: Climate, amount of water/precipitation, amount of sunlight, soil type

Biotic factors include but not limited to: are the plant, animal and other life forms found in the ecosystems of the biome and their interactions

158. Give examples of biomes, and describe how they are different from one another.

Biomes include regions such as: Tropical Rain Forest, Dessert, Tundra, Savannah, Chaparral, Boreal forest.  Each has different climate, plant life, and animal life that distinctly separates it from one another.

159. Overtime biomes can change, what abiotic factors can change to change what biome is found there? 

Climate is typically the fastest changing abiotic factor to affect a biome, but soil type, nutrient availability can also change.

160. How does climate influence a biome?

Many organisms require specific conditions to survive.  If the climate in an area changes it will affect what plant and animal life is able to survive, thus influencing the biome.  Changes can include temperature change, precipitation amounts or types change.

161. For each symbiotic relationship listed below, define it and give at least 2 examples of it in nature.

1. Mutualism

An interaction between two organisms that benefits both organisms

Flowers and Insects

Gut Bacteria in a cow

2. Commensalism

An interaction between two organisms that benefits one organism, but does not impact the other

Barnacles on whales

Sharks and remora fish

3. Parasitism 

An interaction between two organisms that benefits one organism and harms another

Mosquitos, ticks, lice

163. What is a habitat?

The natural home or environment in an ecosystem in which an organism lives

164. What is a niche?  How does it differ from a habitat?

The role an organism plays in its environment.

Includes both biotic and abiotic relationships and interactions, whereas a habitat is simply the location in which an organism lives

165. What does the competitive exclusion principle tell us?

No two species can occupy the same niche.  One will outcompete the other. No two species can use the exact same resources in the same way at the same time

166. If two species attempt to have the same niche, what will happen to the species?

One species will survive and continue to use the niche, the other will have to change adapt to use different resources or face dieing off

167. How does a community and ecosystem differ?  

Community is different populations interacting with one another, while an ecosystem includes a community and the abiotic factors found within that community region.

168. Describe the difference between biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem.  List 4 examples of each.

Biotic factors are living factors such as animal life, plant life, bacteria, organism interactions, predator-prey relationships.

Abiotic factors are nonliving factors such as climate, amount of water available, water pH, soil type, geology and topography of an area.

169. If chemical pollution is added to a pond environment, what impact will that have on the ecosystem?

A chemical pollution in a pond could lead to the death of some organisms in the pond if the chemical is toxic or has a harmful affect on some native organisms.  It could change the nutrient content of the pond and make some organisms more successful, which can lead to a change in many populations due to organism interactions such interspecific competition.

170. Describe the relationship between photosynthesis and cell respiration in the carbon cycle?

The products of one process are the reactant for the other, allowing carbon to cycle.  Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide, water and energy (sunlight) to produce glucose and oxygen.  While glucose and oxygen are then used in respiration to produce carbon dioxide, water, and cellular energy (ATP).  

171. How has the burning of fossil fuels affected the carbon cycle?

The burning of fossil fuels has released carbon that has been stored in the geosphere for millions of years into the atmosphere.  Thus increasing the amount of carbon (carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere.

172. Draw a diagram that shows the carbon cycle.

Unit 11

173. What 2 factors can directly increase a population?  What 2 factors can directly decrease a population?

Increase: Birth Rate increase, Immigration increase

Decrease: Death Rate increase, Emigration increase

174. Explain the difference between exponential and logistical growth.

Exponential growth is continued population growth with increased population, results in a J curve when graphed.

Logistical growth is population expansion decreases as resources become scarce, leveling off when the carrying capacity of the environment is reached.  Results in S curved when graphed

175. Draw a graph that displays both exponential and logistical growth, label each.

176. What conditions are needed for exponential growth?  For logistical growth?

In order for exponential growth to occur excess resources must be available.  Logistical growth occurs when limited resources and or competition for those resources exist.

177. What is a carrying capacity?

Carrying capacity is the maximum population size of a biological species that can be sustained by a specific environment.

178. What factors can affect carrying capacity?

Food, water, shelter, habitat, other resources, predator-prey relationships, natural disasters, disease, etc

179. Describe the difference between density dependent and density independent limiting factors.  Then list examples of each.

Density Dependent limiting factors are affected by the population density of the organism.  Density dependent limiting factors include predator-prey relationships, disease, competition, and organism interactions.

Density Independent limiting factors are factors that affect the population regardless of the density of the organisms.  Density independent limiting factors include: natural disasters, climate change, pollution, etc.

180. How can a predator-prey relationship help control populations?

Increases in a prey population can lead to an increase in predator population as they have more food source.  

Increases in predator population can lead to decrease prey population as they need to hunt and key more of the prey population to feed the larger population.

Decreased prey population can lead to decreased predator population as they have less food available. 

Decreased predator population can lead to increased prey population as they have less organisms trying to hunt and kill them.

181. On Isle Royale the wolf and moose population have a predator-prey relationship. Explain how the wolf population (bars) affects the moose population (line).

When the wolf population decreases it leads to an increase in the moose population.  Eventually as the moose population increases the wolf population starts to increase as well, which leads to a decrease in moose population, this pattern cycles in a boom bust cycle

182. What type of growth does the human population display?

Global human population currently shows exponential growth, with a rapid increase in human population in recent times.

183. How has technological advancement affected the demography of the human population?

Technology has allowed for humans to develop technique and tools to increase the carrying capacity of the Earth.  This includes things such as improved agriculture that allows for increased harvest rates, improved medical technology to extend human life and prevent death from diseases, improved resource harvesting, and improved hygiene habits.

184. What factors could affect the carrying capacity of the Earth for humans?  What can humans do to help increase their carrying capacity?

As mentioned in the previous question, many technological advances help to increase the carrying capacity of the Earth.  Also the concepts of Reduce, reuse and recycle can help reduce human resource needs, helping to maintain or increase the carrying capacity of the Earth.  

185. What is succession?

Succession is the series of environmental changes that occur in an ecosystem.  Succession occurs in predictable stages.

186. How do primary and secondary succession differ?  What do they have in common?  

-Primary succession occurs in previously uncolonized areas.  In primary succession typically bare ground or rock with little nutrients begins the process.  

-In secondary succession a previously colonized area endures a catastrophe that brings it back to a previous state in the process and begins moving through the stages of succession again.

-Both move through predictable stage of growth towards a climax community.

187. What is needed for a secondary succession to occur.

In order for secondary succession to occur a catastrophe must occur.  Some catastrophe are much larger than others but can include things such as natural disasters including hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, forest fires, etc or man made events such as herbicides, clear cutting of forest, etc.

188. Describe each of the following:

1. Pioneer Community

Pioneer communities are Initial life in an ecosystem. Characterized by small quick reproducing plant life and organisms that can consume.  Includes organisms such as mosses, fungi, and lichen.

2. Intermediate Community

Intermediate Communities has developed and is capable of supporting more organisms. Includes grasses, shrubs and immature trees.  All stages between pioneer and climax community are considered intermediate.

3. Climax community

Climax community is when the ecosystem has reached a steady state.  Includes well developed interaction of organisms.  Can sustain for hundreds or thousands of years.  Includes mature growth trees such as oak, hickory, and maples.

4. How can humans impact succession in nature?

Humans can positively or negatively influence succession in ecosystems.  Human activities from clearing cutting forest, to cutting grass and fields influence succession in an ecosystem.  In some areas controlled burns are conducted to affect succession and move back to a previous state in the process.  When forest are clear cut for industry a climax community is removed and returned to a previous state.  The use of herbicide and other chemicals can cause death of plant life and move an ecosystem to a previous state in the succession process.