AP Lang: Rhetorical Devices/Argument Fallacies

Term	Definition
Ad Hominem	An attack on the character of a person rather than their opinions Ex: “You wouldn't understand since you have never had to struggle”
Argument from Authority	Form of argument in which the opinion of an authority figure(s) is used as evidence to support an argument Ex: “I read a book by a nutritionist who says all carbs are bad. That’s why I avoid them completely”
Appeal to Ignorance	Fallacy that occurs when you argue that your conclusion must be true, because there is no evidence against it Ex: “There is no evidence that ghosts don’t exist, so ghosts must exist”
Begging the Question	An argument where the conclusion is assumed in one of the premises. An attempt to prove something true while simultaneously taking that same thing for granted. Ex: “Murder is always morally wrong” SO… “Therefore, abortion is morally wrong”
Hasty Generalization	This is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. In other words, you are rushing to a conclusion before you have all the relevant facts. Ex: I saw a basketball player sneeze; thus, all basketball players have allergies.
Non Sequitur	It does not follow; When one statement isn’t logically connected to another Ex: “People died of cancer before cigarettes were invented” “So smoking doesn’t cause cancer”
False Dichotomy	Fallacy that presents two options as the only possibilities, when in fact more alternatives exist. Limits the discussion by ignoring other potential solutions/viewpoints Ex: Assuming people are either quiet or super loud and nothing else.
Slippery Slope	A conclusion based on the premise that if A happens, then eventually through a series of small steps, through B, C,..., X, Y, Z will happen, too, basically equating A and Z. So, if we don’t want Z to occur, A must not be allowed to occur either Ex: “We should lower the legal drinking age” No because… Everyone will start drinking Children will buy booze 10 year olds will get drunk in bars The world will come to an end
Faulty Causality	Assumption of a cause-and-effect relationship between two events based without sufficient evidence Usually because one event followed the other in time Ex: Many heroin addicts used marijuan before they tried heroin. Clearly, marijuana causes heroin abuse then
Straw Man Argument	Oversimplifies an opponent’s viewpoint and then attacks that hollow argument Ex: Those who advocate for environmental protection are clearly against progress and economic development.
Sentimental Appeals	When emotion is used to distract/manipulate the audience from the facts to win an argument Ex: Advertisements showing sad images of puppies to persuade people to adopt and donate to them Evoked a sad emotion to persuade them
Red Herring	This is a diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues, often by avoiding opposing arguments rather than addressing them Ex: “Mom I want that teddy bear” “Let’s go home and get you ice cream”
Scare Tactics	Trying to frighten people into agreeing with the arguer by threatening them or predicating unrealistically dire consequences Ex: Parents telling a fake scary story so children will follow rules
Bandwagon Appeals	Urges the audience to accept a position because majority of people already do Ex: Everyone agrees that global warming is good, so will I then
Dogmatism	Tendency to lay down principles as incontrovertibly true, without consideration of evidence or the opinions of others Ex: A person who refuses to acknowledge new perspectives A politician who insist on their own policies despite evidence
Equivocation	Fallacy where a key term or phrase in an argument is used in an ambiguous way/changes halfway through the argument Ex: A piece of paper is light. What is light cannot be dark. Therefore a piece of paper cannot be dark.
Faulty Analogy	Assuming that because two things are alike in one or more respects, they are necessarily alike in some other respect Ex: “Guns are like hammers--they’re both tools with metal parts that could kill someone” SO… “Yet it would ridiculous to restrict hammers, so restrictions on guns is also ridiculous”

Term	Definition
Diction	A writer’s choice of words, phrases, sentence structures, and figurative language, which combine to help create meaning Ex: The party started with a bang.
Syntax	Structure of sentences and/or phrases Ex: The boy ran hurriedly Hurriedly, the boy ran
Style	Choices in diction, tone, and syntax that a writer makes. May be conscious or unconscious. Ex: Vivid and Persuasive Language Author may use… Figurative language Sentence Variety Strong diction
Tone	Use of stylistic devices that reveal an author’s attitude towards a subject Ex: Author’s attitude Formal/Informal Serious/Humorous Optimistic/Pessimistic
Point of View	Perspective from which a story is told Ex: First Person Narrator tells a story from their own perspective Second Person Narrator tells a story about the reader or viewer Third Person Narrator tells a story about other people
Rhetoric	Art of effective communication, specifically use of language to persuade, inform, or motivate an audience Ex: Relationships between the writer, the audience, and the subject. Author, purpose, and audience ==== Message
Imagery	Word or words that create a picture in the reader’s mind. Involves five senses, metaphors, similes, and figures of speech. Ex: a) The red bulb was glowing. b) The soft glow came from the tiny setting sun, firmly fixated on the wall.
Denotation	Literal, explicit meaning of a word, without its connotations Ex: “Warm” Having a high temperature or feeling hot Straightforward definition
Connotation	Rather than the dictionary definition, the associations suggested by a word. Implied meaning Ex: Home Positive connotation House Neutral connotation Inexpensive Positive Cheap Negative
Oxymoron	Contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox Ex: Wise fool Jumbo Shrimp Bittersweet
Paradox	A seemingly contradictory situation which is actually true Ex: “Life is much too important to be taken seriously”
Rhetorical Question	Questions not asked for information but for effect Ex: Do you want to be a failure for the rest of your life? Is the pope Catholic?
Bombast	Inflated language that sounds impressive, but lacks substance Ex: “A man who labors under the pressure of pecuniary embarrassment” “Tyger Tyger, burning bright”
Pun	When a word that has two or more meanings is used in a humorous way Ex: Have a nice trip! See you next fall.
Theme	Central idea or message of a work May be directly stated in nonfiction works, although not necessarily Ex: Good versus Evil Love, Justice, & power
Aphorism	A terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle Can be a memorable summation of the author’s point Ex: “Actions speak louder than words” “A penny saved is a penny earned”
Malapropism	Incorrect words used in place of correct words; these can be unintentional or intentional, but both cases have a comedic effect Ex: “She’s as headstrong as an allegory(alligator) on the banks of Nile”
Circumlocution	Using more words than are necessary to communicate meaning Help soften the blow of bad news, obscure the truth, or be evasive Ex: “I wouldn't mind having something to eat at the moment” Instead of “I’m hungry”
Euphemism	A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts. Sometimes they are used for political correctness Used to exaggerate correctness to add humor Ex: “Passed away” Instead of “Died”
Verbal Irony	When literal meaning of what someone says is different from--and often opposite to--- what they actually mean Ex: Huge hurricane outside Someone states, “What lovely weather we’re having”
Situational Irony	Outcome of a situation is contrary to or different from what is expected Ex: Police station being robbed Fire station burning down
Satire	Work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life to a humorous effect Targets human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions Ex: The book “Animal Farm”

Term	Definition	Examples
Alliteration	The repetition of a sound at the beginning of two or more neighboring words	Busy as a bee Living the life
Allusion	An indirect or passing reference to someone or something	He acts like Scrooge.
Amplification	Restating a word or idea and adding more detail	This is important---so important that it impacts everything.
Anadiplosis	The last word or phrase of one sentence, clause, or line is repeated at the beginning of the next	She opened a cafe. A cafe that ruined her financially.
Analogy	A comparison between two things, typically for the purpose of explanation or clarification	Life spins like a wheel.
Anaphora	References repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses, sentences, or lines	“It rained on his lousy tombstone, and it rained on the grass on his stomach. It rained all over the place”
Apostrophe	The speaker or writer directly addresses an absent person, a personified idea, or an inanimate object	Why does she never answer her phone?
Asyndeton	Conjunctions are omitted, producing a fast-paced and rapid prose	Reduce, reuse, recycle She ran, she jumped, she won.
Catachresis	Using mixed metaphors in an incorrect or inappropriate way, often for a more striking or creative effect	Her look was as heavy as a feather Blind mouths Knife-edge of history
Chiasmus	Words, grammatical constructions, or concepts are repeated in reverse order, in the same or a modified form	By day the frolic, and the dance by night
Climax	Figure of repetition in which words or phrases are arranged in order of increasing intensity or importance	When it rains, it pours It’s a bird! It’s a plan! It’s Superman!
Conduplicatio	The repetition of a key word or phrase at or near the beginning of successive clauses or sentences	“...the voices of the wind, the voices of my children”
Diazeugma	A sentence construction in which a single subject is accompanied by multiple verbs	“The seven of us discussed, argued, tried, failed, tried again”
Distinctio	An explicit reference to a particular meaning in order to remove ambiguity	By success, I mean achieving my goals. By this I mean… Which is to say… That is…
Epanalepsis	Figure of emphasis in which the same word or words both begin(s) and end(s) a phrase, clause or sentence	Nothing is worse than doing nothing.
Exemplum	Using an example, brief, or extended, real or fictitious, to illustrate a point; an example	This side of the house needs some greenery, such as pine trees and rose bushes.
Expletive	A single word or phrase intended to emphasize surrounding words	In fact, of course, after all… The test was certainly difficult.
Hyperbole	Intentional exaggeration or an exaggerated statement that isn’t meant to be taken literally		I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.
Hypophora	Involves the speaker or writer posing a question and promptly answering it	What’s the best way to get better at something? Practice and consistency.
Hypozeugma	A zeugma in which the governing word is at the *end* of the sentence, *after* the governed parts	His clothes, his books, and his dignity were lost.
Litotes	A particular form of understatement, generated by denying the opposite of the statement which otherwise would be used	This isn’t the fanciest restaurant I’ve stayed at. To refer to a low-quality restaurant
Mesozeugma	A zeugma in which the governing word is in the *middle* of the sentence, *between* the government parts	He works nights, I days.
Metabasis	A transitional statement in which one explains what has been and what will be said	You have just learned how to make a sandwich, and now you’ll understand the unique types you can make.
Metaphor	Figure of speech that implicitly compares two unrelated things, typically by stating that one thing is another	The world's a stage.
Metonymy	In which the name of an object or concept is replaced with a word closely related to or suggested by the original	Crown replacing king White house replacing presidential administration
Onomatopoeia	Word that is pronounced the same way as the sound associated with it	SLAM Gurgle
Parallelism	In which two or more elements of a sentence(or a series of sentences) have the same grammatical structure	Do yourself a favor by doing your best and doing your duty.
Personification	Non-human things are described as having human attributes	The flowers danced under the sun.
Polysyndeton	Creating a list of items which are all separated by conjunction Usually using: and, or, & but (FANBOYS)	“Neither snow nor rain nor heat nor gloom of night stays these couriers”
Procatalepsis	Points out problems with the counterargument before the opponent can present that position	It is usually argued that donkeys are not rated that pretty as horses. The truth of this is shown by…
Prozeugma	A zeugma in which the governing word is at the *beginning* of the sentence, *before* the government parts	He took his hat, and his vacation.
Simile	Using words such as “like” or “as” to make a direct comparison between two very different things	As busy as a bee Cold like the Arctic
Syllepsis (Z)	When a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, and the meaning of the first word must change for each of the other words it governs or modifies *Specific* category	“She blew my nose and then she blew my mind”
Synecdoche	Rhetorical substitution of a part for the whole	Wheels--->for car Sails----->for ship
Understatement	Ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is Can frequently be humorous	“It seems to be raining a little” ----> During a hurricane
Zeugma (S)	When a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, and the meaning of the first word must change for each of the other words it governs or modifies *Broader* category	She broke his car and his heart. He took his coat and his leave.