Unit One- How civilizations built themselves (1200 CE - 1450 CE):

Song China:

China was still the world’s preeminent power in 1000. In 960, the country was split into regional kingdoms as the power of the Tang was decreasing. The Golden Age from the Tang pushed into the Song. 

• Zhao Kuangyin: ruler of one of the kingdoms and wanted to unify all of them into an empire which turned into the Song dynasty (960-1279). 

• Song emperors built a state structure with Tang bases. 

State structure: personnel, finance, rites, army justice public works. Censorate managed every one of these bureaucratic departments (misbehaving led to immediate death). 

Confucianism: organized government and remained a continuity in Chinese culture over the years.

- Confucian understanding of the world: reality is fundamentally hierarchical (everyone has their own place in society and society only works if everyone behaves)  

- Revival and expansion of civil service exam (entrance exam for imperial bureaucracy, had to be well versed in Confucian ideals). The exam shifted power from a hereditary form of aristocracy to a new class of scholarly leaders. Power from being involved in the government passed the nobles, creating a meritocracy.

• With an organized structure of government, China could now focus on accumulating wealth.

- Chinese merchants traded all across the Afro-Eurasia (Africa, Europe, Asia) landmass, resulting in an increasingly commercialized Chinese society (products were for selling in foreign regions compared to when in history, people only made things for themselves/own region). For example, Chinese iron production in 1200 rivaled Europe in the 18th century. 

- This transformed the role of money in China, popularizing paper money.

- Gunpowder: made accidentally by Daoist alchemists but was not immediately put in a military context but instead for fireworks and pyrotechnic displays for the imperial court. Military leaders then eventually applied it in battle. This influenced neighboring countries. For example, Japan wanted to make their own identity to push away Chinese influence even if it was all over Japanese culture.  

- Chinese manufactured (not factories, just artisans actually making things). They made porcelain and invented the moveable type which produced books (revolutionized literacy: as it moved to Europe, Gutenberg mass-produced books and helped the Protestant Reformation.  

• Because China was at the crossroads of major trade highways, a fusion of religious and cultural elements occurred. China affected others, others affected China. 

• Buddhism: came from India to China. Mahayana Buddhism from Vietnam was the most significant form of Buddhism that traveled along the trade routes to get to China. It included many spiritual deities, veneration of relics, and multiple heavens and hells. 

• Buddhism split into two large branches after Buddha (Hindu prince Siddhartha Gautama who, seeking the meaning of human suffering, meditated under a sacred tree and became the Enlightened One/Buddha :O) died in 483 BCE. Theravada (Hinayana) Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism. Tibetan (they did chanting) and Zen Buddhism (minor forms) took form. 

SUMMARY: Population + Agricultural Base + Manufacturing = WEALTH, Language + Confucianism + Culture = UNITY

Dar al-Islam:  

A new Islamic caliphate (Abbasid) came to power in the Middle East and North Africa. It was unified by Islamic tradition and the Arabic language but unity loosened in 1000. Islamic merchants shared their religion during a trade diaspora. 

• 1200: Newly converted Muslims that were Turks invaded India. The Turks were one of the biggest carriers of Islam after the Arabs and Persians. They established a Muslim political state in India (Delhi Sultanate). Indian culture responded roughly to Islam since they were Hindu for a long time (set a cultural hierarchy for hundreds of years). The faiths had contradicting beliefs and the Indians were like nuh-uh. Some gave in so they did not have to pay the Jizya tax, a tax for not being Muslim. 

• Sufi Islam focused on more emotional and ecstatic experiences within the religion so it became more popular. Indians said hell yeah to that; they were usually of lower caste or disillusioned Buddhists. Islam’s promise of egalitarianism (equality) appealed to them. 

• In West Africa (Songhai, Ghana, Mali), Islam spread by commercial enterprises; merchants showed Islam to them and they voluntarily and peacefully converted. The religion even reached the highest roles of governments. Mansa Musa, ruler of Mali, went on a hajj to Mecca where he gave money away to display his wealth and spread Allah’s words. 

• Though different cultures reacted differently to the spread of Islam, they brought many of their own advancements to each region they came across. 

• They were dominant players in the Afro-Eurasian trade network. They created forms of banking, granting of credit, and business contracts. 

• Stole rockets from the Chinese and figured out how to fire them with greater accuracy. They also advanced papermaking (also stolen from the Chinese). Bureaucrats in kingdoms could have a tighter grip on their people bc the more you write down, the more you can hold people accountable for. 

• They were constantly translating the works of Greek philosophy and natural science into Arabic. This not only preserved knowledge but also had them expand upon them. For example, in 830 CE, Abbasid caliph al-Mamun erected the House of Wisdom in Baghdad which became an academic center for learning, research, and translation. 

• The Abbasids made math, astronomy, and astrolabes. 

State-building and Culture in South Asia and Southeast Asia: 

Hinduism held a tight influence over South Asia even with Muslim interference with the Delhi Sultanate. Two brothers who converted to Islam for power and status converted back to Hinduism when surrounded by it when they went south (Muslims sent them to see what spreading further into India would be like). They then created the Vijayanagara Empire (1336), in which they headed back north to make sure Hinduism remains the dominant religion in India. 

• Bhaktis were similar to the Sufis (emotional expression emphasis over rigid ritualistic behavior). There was a Bhakti movement that emphasized rituals (music + dance to forge better connection with deities). Anyway, Hinduism still created continuity in Indian culture with the strict caste system. 

• India affected others, others affected India. 

• Intellectual capital like the Middle East. Indians expanded on Arab’s findings of astronomy and the Arabs translated Indian work on Algebra and Geometry and spread them throughout Dar al-Islam. 

Southeast Asia became heavily Buddhist and Hindu-based when merchants brought the faiths over with their location being optimal for sea-trade trade. 

• The Majapahit Empire (1293) was a leading Buddhist empire of the sea trade routes 

• A land-based one was the Khmer Empire (802-1431). They had a complex irrigation and drainage system that utilized the Mekong River. This led to agricultural progress and significant prosperity. They were Hindus but later converted to Buddhism. 

State-building in the Americas and Africa: 

Mississippian Culture was the first large-scale civilization in North America. They created monumental mounds for religious, ceremonial, and elite residential purposes. 

• The Cahokia, one of the Mississippians, were located in what is now southern Illinois. They had a similar caste system to the one in Hinduism. The civilization got abandoned in 1450, most likely due to a natural disaster, as speculated by historians. 

• The Chaco and Mesa Verde civilizations (southwestern portion of North America) made towns and buildings on the sides of cliffs because they lived in arid and treeless parts. The climate got very dry and the two civilizations went out in 1300.

• The Aztecs founded Tenochtitlan in 1325 which contained ziggurats and bustling marketplaces. Bernal Diaz del Castillo described it as a beauty of the world. They conquered much of Mesoamerica with a tribute system administered by a local governor. This helped keep control of distant lands without having to be directly/locally in control. 

• Sub-Saharan Africans adopted agriculture (1000) and formed kin-based networks—chief-led groups of villages that were geographically clustered connected in loose federations—instead of having a centralized government. Chiefs formed councils to solve issues. For example, the Hausa Kingdom before 1000 dedicated their seven states to what they specialized in. They were widely involved in the trans-Saharan trade, which brought Muslim influence in by the 1300s. Small communities were connected by kinship ties. Griottes were the storytellers (literature existed orally). 

Developments in Europe:

Europe was divided culturally and politically (from the church split) into tribal kingdoms constantly in a battle for dominance. 

• Feudalism (system of mutual obligations between the classes) was very socially prominent then (500-1000). This period was known as the Dark Age as trade rarely occurred, and everything from standard of living and intellectual life declined. 

• In the High Middle Ages (1000-1450), monarchies started to rise. Kings accumulated land and power, causing a power shift away from the feudal lords. They did so by creating huge bureaucracies that carried out their will and massive armies. 

• The signing of the Magna Carta in 1215 shifted the power back to the nobles as it showed their rights. In 1265, the English parliament was created and this gave them more light by representing their interests in government. 

• A continuity was the Roman Catholic Church as it constructed universities, giving way to Christian scholars. Artists also spread the religion, giving illiterate people a visual display of the faith of Jesus Christ. 

• The rise in monarchs threatened the religion as it provided cultural and ideological unity across Europe. Thus, the Crusades began in the 12th century. The pope called death to the Muslims so they can get back their holy land (Jerusalem), which appealed to citizens as it embraced their religious sides. 

• Marco Polo encountered Kublai Khan in China in the late 13th century, to which he documented his travels and experiences. This stirred curiosities in Europe about #exoticness of East Asia. Innovations in mapmaking and cartography took way. 

• The middle class/bourgeoisie emerged. 

• A teeny weeny Ice Age happened (less crops, less food, less people, less money :c). 

• After 1300, Europeans bathed in the glorious light of the Renaissance. Twas the rebirth of Greco-Roman culture. 

Unit One Overview

• Civilization began to gain traction with large world religions having a huge influence on the lives of the citizens. Technological advancements like paper and gunpowder opened many opportunities for many things (efficient writing systems, blowing people up, etc…). Smaller states with local religion and older technologies were in decline. 

• A constant pattern in Unit One is state-building (how states built themselves up and how they retained control over their varied populations). State refers to an organized political community under one government. Religion was the foundation of state-building. For example, Islam created a system of shared beliefs and language to unite regions across Afro-Eurasia. 

• Paper from China via trade routes to Europe, North Africa, and Southeast Asia drastically increased literacy and learning rates. 

• As mentioned in Unit 0, nomads used to play a huge factor in cultural exchanges. But, the rise in merchants with trade diminished their role. 

Unit Two - Trade and its effects (1200-1450): 

Silk Roads, Indian Ocean, & Trans-Saharan Routes:

These trading regions/routes shaped old cultures and began new cultures. 

• The Silk Road carried and traded most of its namesake across its lengthy roads that stretched from China to Europe and into North Africa. They existed before 1200 but they worked best as a conduit of trade when large empires controlled all the land across which they stretched. For example, the Han and the Roman Empire had a robust trading relationship because they each owned all the land that the roads lay upon. 

• Luxurious goods were usually carried by caravan camels along these routes since it cost a lot to transport them, with Chinese silk being the most in-demand. It has been a symbol of status since it was first made in 3000 BCE. 

• Buddhist merchants helped spread Buddhism across East Asia because they waddled down those roads. The religion changed outwardly and inwardly as it traveled down the paths. Outward: Buddhism was supposed to reject the material world like it was an illusion but Buddhist merchants still accepted lavish goods. Inward: These were more doctrinal changes. Buddhism was originally atheistic but Mahayana Buddhism viewed Buddha as a deity and practices had an emphasis on compassionate works and the earning of merit. 

• Diseases also carried themselves down the roads and drastically affected countries. The bubonic plague/black death wiped out nearly half of the European population between 1346-1348. 

• The Indian Ocean linked civilizations by sea instead of land like the Silk Roads. It stretched from China to East Africa, with both common (wheat, sugar, rice) and luxury (porcelain, cotton/pepper, spices, ivory/gold) goods being exchanged en route. 

• It cost less to put more things on a ship than to put fewer things on a wee camel. People even figured out the patterns of a monsoon (winds blew northeast in the summer and blew southeast in the winter). Maritime inventions like the compass and the astrolabe were made. Chinese junks were also created; they were massive flat-bottomed ships with six masts that could carry 500 men and lots of goods for trade. 

• These trade routes were open before 1200 but there was a massive growth due to economic revival during the Tang/Song dynasties where they exported enormous amounts of material. The rise of Islam also contributed to merchant activity. 

• Southeast Asia was smackdab in the middle of major trading systems and this gave way to the Srivijaya Kingdom which dominated trade from 670-1025. Malay sailors opened straits in the Malacca, encouraging competition for the attention of traders and travelers in seaports across the Malay peninsula. 

• A sand-based trade route was the Trans-Saharan trade route. They linked North Africa (cloth, glasswork, books) and the Mediterranean world with the interior of Africa, specifically West Africa (grain, yams, kola nuts). 

• The climates/environments of each section varied drastically, so each land produced many different things, pushing the incentive for trade. The Arabian camel made it possible to travel the big desert region between North Africa and the more southern parts of the continent. 

• Between 500-1600, African civilization began to take shape. For example, the rise of the Mali Kingdom held a monopoly on the trade of horses and metals. To generate revenue, they levied taxes on salt and copper. They also had a set hierarchy (king, elites, merchants, military/religious, peasants, slaves). 

• The Swahili civilization (emerged in the 8th century with a set of city-states) found it abundant to trade native things in their region like ivory, gold, and slaves. A merchant class was created and from 1000-1500, the Swahili urban commercial centers flourished

Cultural Consequences of Trade (1200-1450): 

As merchants traveled on the trade routes mentioned above, more than goods/services were carried along. 

• Two things happened to religion. 

• Religion unified groups of people and justified leadership (like divine right). 

• The religions syncretized (mixed together) and produced something new. For example, Buddhism joined with Daoist beliefs and Zen/Chan Buddhism emerged on the way to China. Neo-Confucianism also stemmed from rational thoughts of Buddhist and Daoist beliefs that originated in China but spread to Japan and Korea. 

• Cultural beginnings were also unearthed. Muslim merchants that came from droves on the shores of East Africa out of the Indian Ocean trade met Bantu-speaking Africans. The blend of Arabic and Bantu birthed Swahili. 

• Technological consequences occurred as well. In Cairo (Egypt), advances in medicine led to improved care in hospitals. People in medical fields also started to study for licensing and standardized testing to be a #legit doctor. The lateen sail was invented to go against the wind for flexible travel. The sternpost rudder helped in ship turning. 

• There was a growth of cities from trade. Hangzhou (China) became urbanized by merchants with over a million people in its population. As always, as cities became prosperous and did not have to worry about shelter and food, art gave way. Lu Yu and Xin Qiji were some of the major poets that created major literary art. There was also an Arab minority in the city. 

• Marco Polo in the 13th century traveled across China and arrived at the court of Kublai Khan (Genghis Khan’s grandson) to recount his journeys. Intrigued by these stories, the Emperor made Marco Polo his ambassador across various parts of China, where the traveler possessed this position for seventeen years. When he returned home, he was captured by Venetian enemies. In prison, he also told these stories to prisoners. Eventually, the stories were published and Europeans desired to adventure in these omg so exotic lands and purchase from them. 

• Ibn Battuta had the ambition to travel across Dar al-Islam. He went through Persia, Spain, Mecca, the East African Coast, India, Mali, and elsewhere. He kept commentaries about the diverse people that he came across and the publication had the same effect on the Muslim population as the Europeans from Marco Polo. 

• Other significant travelers include Xuanzang (China → India) [Buddhism] and Margery Kempe (England → Europe) [Christian]

• Zheng He’s travels (i think ms stalec is still pronouncing this wrong :()

Environmental Consequences of Trade: 

Merchants brought crops along and introduced them to land that has never grown such things. They also brought disease.

• Champa rice was introduced from Champa Kingdom (Vietnam) to China. This strain was resistant to drought and could be harvested several times a year. Consequently, farmers developed terrace farming to grow the rice. More rice=more food=boom in population. 

• Bananas from Indonesia were brought into sub-Saharan Africa. The Bantu-speaking natives used to be reliant on yams and only lived where yams grew but as they were introduced to bananas, whole groups began to migrate. 

• More food led to an increase in population but this also put pressure on the land. In Great Zimbabwe in the 1400s, overgrazing led to drastic environmental degradation and everyone had to abandon the city. Europe had lots of erosion happen on its soil because of mass deforestation. Thus, there was a severely contracted agricultural production in the 1300/the 1400s (combined with the tiny Ice Age that happened in the 1300s). 

• The Mongol empire with their lust for land and merchants on trade routes (ships were homes to infected rats) brought fleas that carried the Black Death. When merchants stopped in caravanserai along the Silk Road to rest, they got infected from being in close proximity to infected animals. This disrupted connectivity as it quite literally killed the masses. In Europe, since half of the population was wiped out, the scarce workers had the power to negotiate wages. 

The Mongol Empire: 

The Mongols were the most significant pastoral people as they emerged in the 13th century and in a few years had control of the largest land-based empire in history. However, they did not even bring a new religion, language, or like literally anything else so they are kinda lame for that (did not have a significant cultural footprint)! 

• Temujin/Genghis Khan was born in the 12th century when Mongolian tribes were in constant conflict. He and his family became social outcasts but Temujin gained his foothold again when he forged critical personal alliances among tribes. He was recognized as a chief among his followers and was known for his ruthlessness toward his enemies. He secured a healthy string of military victories. His method of controlling his conquered people was by incorporating them into his tribe instead of enslaving them or other stuff like that. On the wave of his growing power, a tribal council in 1206 named him Genghis Khan/Chinggis Khan (supreme leader of a newly unified Mongol nation, he was named Chinggis by later historians but it is the same person). 

• #Expansiontime. In 1209, he decided to step foot into China which set in motion the expansion of the Mongolian empire. Their population of less than a million people took over so many people because of their aggressive tactics led by Genghis and as they conquered, they gained more resources to conquer even more. The Khan order had military units of 10k, 1k, 100, and 10 which his conquered people were also thrown into (but they were separated so revolts would not happen). If one person in a unit drifted, the whole unit was massacred so citizens were in fear of opposing him. However, he still tolerated some things: you can devote yourself to religion but it cannot be the center of political opposition. 

• China takeover (1207-1279): The Mongols started in northern China and their goal was destruction and plunder. However, as they went further south, they wanted to accommodate the local population. For example, landowners could keep their land as long as they pledged loyalty. All in all, this unified China. Even Confucian scholars believed that the Mongols were given the Mandate of Heaven to rule over them. The Mongols made rule pretty easy by using existing administration and taxation policies. This started the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) where canals were built, roads were improved, and scholars and artists were patronized. They ruled like beneficent Confucian leaders. However, their brief control lasted until the mid-14th century when they were forced out by factionalism, the plague, and numerous peasant rebellions. 

• Persia takeover: The Muslim Persians were in great disbelief of the great massacring of 1258 during the sacking of Baghdad; 200k people were killed. However, the Mongols were more influenced by the Persians than the Persians by them. Many Mongols converted to Islam and acknowledged the Persian administration system. They were slowly receding from the Persians as they gradually lost control. 

Unit Two Overview/Additional Information for 1&2

• Silk Roads: connected China to Europe while passing through Central and Southwest Asia. Indian Ocean: connected East Asia with East Africa and had like every part of Asia except central all in between. Trans-saharan: connected North Africa and the Mediterranean Basin with sub-Saharan Africa.

• The trade routes depended on their existence and flourishing upon the establishment of large states. Large states in cooperation with each other to connect everyone made merchants feel safe to travel. New technology came forth to transport goods efficiently across the routes. Cultural and crop exchanges occurred since so many diverse people connected. Trading cities were erected where many strings of routes intersected. 

• Mongols established the Pax Mongolica that brought peace where trade flourished everywhere they conquered land. 

• The Mongols also influenced the centralization of States in Africa, Europe, and Asia. 

• Comparison of empires present in questions about Unit 1 and 2. 

• The Aztec and Inca Empires were bureaucracies that were polytheistic, revolving around the sun god. They traded in New Mexico with more merchant-controlled trade. 

• In West Africa, the Mali and Songhai Empires dominated Gold and salt trade. The leaders were Sunni Muslims. Timbuktu was the major scholar center. They usually traded within their own empire and had more control over the trade from leaders. 

• Europe is politically fragmented at this time with small kingdoms with no central government (feudalism). 

• Manor system: economic system where farms were self-sufficient. They were trading amongst themselves. 

• A lot of trade happened and people traded lots of fancy stuff. There was credit exchanged 

Unit Three - Empires Expansion Time (1450-1750)

Empires Expand:

One of the main features of these massive land-based empires was gunpowder. Gunpowder empires were located in Central, South, and Southwest Asia. 

• Gunpowder empires relied on advanced firearms to control and expand on their territories. Russia, Safavid, Mughal, and Ottoman were empires who used these tactics. They were fundamentally militaristic but still had art and architecture (these still legitimized the power of the leader). 

• Taj Mahal, Suleiman’s Mosque, Palace of Versailles, Tokugawa moved the capital to Edo, Safavid (add). 

• In the 1400s as European populations recovered from the Black Death and the Hundreds Year War, the Gutenburg printing press efficiently produced literature, increasing literacy. In the 1500s, feudalism depleted and monarchies with centralization took its place. Monarchs controlled taxes, military, and religion. The power of the bureaucracy (a group of government officials who carry out the will of the ruler) expanded. Tudors in England, Valois in France, and Isabella and Ferdinand in Spain. The middle class emerges at the expense of the nobility and the clergy. 

• Russia stretched from the east to the west so it was in a pivotal position to get wealthy on trade. Ivan the Terrible was crowned Czar in 1547 and expanded further east to gain lands from Mongolian Khans through, you guessed it, gunpowder. 

• The Yuan Dynasty with Mongols in power was overthrown in 1368 and gave way to the Ming Dynasty that lasted into the 1600s. Mongols were still a threat to China so the Ming developed on the Great Wall of China originally made in the Qin. In the mid-1700s, Manchu people from Manchuria seized power in 1644 to form the Qing Dynasty. Kangxi helped expand China a lot more into Taiwan, Mongolia, Tibet, and Central Asia with gunpowder :D. 

• Tamerlane (aka Timur Lang), a Mongol Turkic of Samarkand, heavily relied on his military to stabilize and protect the rush of merchants on the Silk Roads. However, this required a lot of money and eventually the economy had to pay the price, causing the empire to fall apart. This then arises the Mughals, Safavids, and the Ottomans.

• The Ottomans were the largest and greatest of the Islamic empires of this time. It lasted for 600 years after it was established in the 1300s. In 1453, under Mehmed II, they seized the Byzantine Christianity crown jewel Constantinople (guarded with thick walls) with #gunpowder. They renamed it Istanbul. This city was very beneficial as it was a Nexus of so many trade routes. The empire reached its peak under the rule of Suleiman the Great from 1520-1566. In 1526, he obtained Hungary and many other territories. He tried pushing into Europe but was thwarted off. This still instilled fear into Europeans. He used gunpowder! 

• Ismail of the Persian Empire conquered most of Persia and some parts of Iraq with gunpowder at 14/15. He made the official religion Shia Islam which unified his empire and denied legitimacy of Sunni Muslims. Thus, the Ottomans (Sunnis) and Persians were in constant conflicts. 

• In the 1520s, Babur (descendant of Tamerlane) founded the Mughal empire when India was in disarray. He completed conquest of northern India with gunpowder and established a centralized government similar to Suleiman. Akbar led the peak of the Mughals and helped it become the most prosperous and well-led states in the world. 

• All of the Islamic empires fell when they failed to modernize their economies and military, different from Europeans who modernize like crazy. 

Administration in Empires:

Leaders did like everything to legitimize and consolidate their rule.

• In England, kings used the doctrine of divine right like James I. Usually, the kings acted outside of the law but citizens really couldn’t do anything because then they would be going against god. Especially in the Tudor, justices of peace were sent out in parts of the monarch’s empire to basically govern out their will. This was still checked by Parliament in 1689 with the English Bill of Rights made by Mary II and William II of Orange after the Glorious Revolution that overthrew James II. 

• Absolutism rose in France. King Louis XIV was the ultimate virtual dictator with absolutism’s peak in France. He combined both the legislative and judicial powers for himself and built the Palace of Versailles. He forced the nobles to appeal to him there to which he took away their military.

• Ottoman Sultans used Devshirme, a system where enslaved people from tribute states served in the military (Janissaries) or made into administrators for the empire. Since in Islam you could not enslave fellow Muslims, boys from ages 8-20 from Christian Europe were in the system. They still received an exquisite education to be made into just officials in the name of the Sultan. They also used the millet system. 

• The Ming reintroduced the civil service exam to try to get rid of any trace of the Mongols.

• In Japan, a feudalish system existed with the daimyo and samurai. Japan was very divided but as daimyos started to gain more power, the Tokugawa Shogunate emerged and unified the fractures. The government under Ieyasu removed the power of the daimyo and directed it all to the Shogun. He stole Louis XIV’s play and made the daimyo have a double residence as well in Tokyo (Edo) - Alternate Attendance Policy and Sword Hunt Decree. 

• Akbar of the Mughal empire in India also had loyal governors called Zamindars. 

• To legitimize power in the Songhai/Songhay Empire, Askia the Great made Islam the official religion which created a sense of cultural continuity. Shah Jahan in India commissioned the Taj Mahal as a tomb for his wife. The Ottomans made the Suleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul. 

• Esfahan/Isfahan was an emperor of the Safavid Empire. 

Belief Systems of Empires: 

Religion both unified and separated empires in this time period.

• The Roman Catholic Church dominated Europe for centuries. It got wonky when Europe transitioned from feudalism to monarchs in power since the rituals of the religion provided cultural continuity. People started to question the RCC as it failed to control the Black Death. The church also grew corrupt from selling indulgences and simony. Martin Luther, a German monk, entered the scene and nailed the document of his 95 Theses to the Wittenberg Church door. The document contained his new understanding of salvation and complaints about the church’s corruption. The invention of the printing press helped spread these Ideas in Germany, causing a split in the church and gave way to the Protestant Reformation. The reform spread into Geneva by John Calvin and into Scotland under John Knox. The RCC did eventually acknowledge their abuses in the Catholic Counter Reformation and at the Council of Trent (1545-1563), they corrected many of their wrongs. They still called Martin Luther and Protestants doctrinal turds. 

• Sunnis believed in the four caliphs as Muhammed’s successors while the Shia believed that his son in law should take his place. (Sunnis are like 85%, Shi’a idk do the math)

• Akbar of the Mughal Empire gave hugs to all his religious citizens. He granted land to Hindus and Muslims without discrimination. He funded the burgeoning Catholic church in India. He even encouraged new religions. Sikhism was introduced (blend of Islam and Hinduism). He established the city Fatehpur Sikri.

Unit Three Overview

• Leaders consolidated and legitimized their power: “I’m in charge so let me show you how I am in charge”. 

• Safavids had the Ghulam (enslaved loyal army to the Shah). 

• Similar to Divine Right in Europe, Islamic rulers were called caliphs. 

• Laws work on people’s wills. Religion, art, and architecture work on people’s imaginations. 

• Comparing land-based empires is important. 

Unit Four - States Establishing Sea Based Empires (1450-1750)

Technological Innovations in Sea-Based Empires:

Maritime empires grew but not necessarily on gunpowder (factors discussed later) (still used gunpowder though). Muslims controlled trade at many of the ports, so Europeans had a hard time establishing trade on their own terms. Therefore, the Europeans looked westward across the Atlantic Ocean to find another route to Asia. 

• They needed better sailing technology; they learned much already from the Greeks, Muslims, and Asians, and inherited detailed astronomical charts and accurate wind charts. They also had the astrolabe, magnetic compass, and lateen sail. 

• The Portuguese then invented the caravel, an easier and faster model to navigate through spaces while also being able to hold much cargo. 

• The Dutch made the fluyt, a ship specifically made for trading. Before, models were made to be able to convert into warships when necessary. Now, with the fluyt, it did not require expensive tools to make the ship and large crews to sail with. 

Exploration- Causes and Events:

States sponsored exploration because of god, gold, and glory. Many nations have always been sailing the ocean (continuity) but the difference is the large-scale state sponsorship (change).  

• Europeans utilized mercantilism to gain as much money as they could by opening maximum trading posts. 

• Europeans as Christians, a missionary religion, wanted to convert as many people as they could in distant lands.  

• Every nation wanted glory; nothing more to boast about than your large empire. 

• Portugal, with Spain on their east side, their only chance of expansion was to the ocean. Prince Henry the Navigator supported this expansion. 

• Bartholomew Diaz, in 1488, sailed to the tip of South Africa and went back home. Vasco de Gama, in 1498, sailed around the tip and to India, where he claimed the area as part of Portugal’s empire. In 1514, Portuguese traders arrived in China, and then came the missionaries. The Franciscans aimed to convert the masses and the Jesuits worked to convert the elite. Their impact was still minor as they were considered barbarians. 

• With all of these achievements, they went on to claim as many strategic locations on the African coasts and throughout the Indian Ocean to possess a monopoly in their trading-post empire in the spice trade. 

• Spain saw this and decided they wanted to do it too for funsies. Ferdinand and Queen Isabella sponsor Columbus. 

• Ferdinand Magellan sailed around the tip of South America and landed in the Philippines where he annexed the islands for Spain and set up significant trading posts that attracted many Asian merchants. 

• Christopher Columbus, sponsored by Spain, went westward (1492) for gold which he found lots of from the Aztecs and Incas. 

• The Spanish realized afterward that they could enslave the natives, and later the Africans, to get hella rich. 

• English state-sponsored explorer John Cabot (1497) aimed to find a route northwestward so they would not have to go through South America’s tip. He discovered the area from Newfoundland to the Chesapeake Bay for England after failing at his goal. In 1607, England would establish their first colony in the Chesapeake Bay called Jamestown. 

• France also wanted a northwest passage to Asia but found natural resources-abundant Canada and established Quebec in 1608. They decided Canada would be just fine and did not want to find Asia anymore. They wanted to use these Canadian territories as trading posts with the Natives and therefore had better relations with them compared to the English.

• In 1609, the Dutch sent Henry Hudson to find a passage to Asia and he found the Hudson River Valley which he named New Amsterdam (NEW YOOORK). The Lenape did not like that! The natives led revolts against the false exchange of their land. 

The Columbian Exchange:

The Columbian Exchange was a disaster to natives in the Americas and extraordinary profitability and wealth for the Europeans. The system introduced new ways of life (and death) through the mutual sharing of the east and the west. 

• Because the east and west were separated for like forever, American natives never built an immunity to devastating European diseases. Smallpox led to large-scale death (about 50-90%) in the Americas. Malaria, measles, and the flu were all brought by the whities. [this is debated but americas brought syphilis to euros)

• Food/animal exchanges came from both sides. Pigs, cows, wheat, and grapes from Europe became staples in the American diet. Horses given to the natives that lived on plains also gave them advantages for killing buffalo (excess food) and killing competing tribes that do not have horses. 

• Mesoamericans introduced potatoes, maize, and cacao. This expanded European diets and led to lots of babies (ew).

• Europeans realized the great profit they could possess if they had large-scale agricultural colonies to sell crops. So, they enslaved the natives, but since the natives knew more about their own land than the colonizers, they easily escaped. 

• Portugal had this happen in Brazil where they grew wealthy from sugarcanes. Tired of the escaping, they brought slaves from the Kongo Kingdom. 

• Higher demand for the crops meant a higher demand for labor. Millions of Africans were forced out of their homes to participate in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. 

• Still, African populations increased from the Columbian exchange because they got yams and manioc (aka cassava) from Brazil. 

• American natives already knew how to sustain their land for crops. But Europeans used this land much more aggressively which led to a lot of deforestation and depletion of the soil. European populations also lived in more densely populated settlements, which caused pollution and strain on the water supply. 

Maritime Empires Established:

• Portugal introduced firearms to African tribes in exchange for enslaved people. Some of these African states even got wealthy by trading their people. Thus, some Africans were open to European influence. 

• At first, Japan welcomed some influence from Europeans. But as the Dutch and the Portuguese gave an increase in European and Christian influence, they shut it down. They closed all trade to purge any foreign religion and influence. But, the Nagasaki Port was still open to the Dutch and Chinese. 

• Britain had much influence in India when they drove out the French in the Seven Years’ War. In their first interactions with India, they had trading posts run by the British East India Company. Mughal leaders restricted the amount of territory they had. But as tensions between Muslims and Hindus rose, Britain played each side against each other to consolidate power for itself. 

• The Spanish made New Spain from the ashes of the Aztecs in 1521 and took over the Incas in 1572. They still had to deal with their rivalry with Portugal as well to gain control of the Americas. They came up with the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, with Spain owning everything west of Brazil and Portugal owning everything east (this is the Line of Demarcation 1493). The Spanish used coerced labor through the hacienda system. Conquistadors/Spanish nobles were given haciendas (land holdings) if they were willing to live in the Americas. Spanish peasants and lower classes worked for them on the land to pay the debt. The nobles accumulated much wealth, especially with sugarcane. In the encomienda system, natives were given protection and Christian education in return for tribute, most likely in the form of labor (not exactly slaves though). They also borrowed the Mita system (the state has citizens work for them on state projects) from the Incas to labor for silver. In chattel slavery, people owned African enslaved people as property to work for them for life. They used Africans because many natives died from disease and knew the land too well. 

• Indian Ocean trade was still going strong. The ties were always ethnic and religious but Portugal arrived with cannon ships to make trade favorable to them. 

• Britain had indentured servitude where people served for a certain amount of years (usually like 7) until they were free. Since they actually became free, they incorporated chattel slavery as well. 

• African demographics changed with polygyny where a man has several wives. Enslaved people had to endure the middle passage to get to the Americas. Compared to slaves in the Indian Ocean slave trade, the American ones were unable to build community with others because of isolated farms. 

• There was a lot of silver flow to Asia from the Americas. 

Maritime Empires Developed & Maintained:

Mercantilism was used by the Europeans; there was a fixed amount of money in the world like a pie, if I want a bigger portion, everyone gets a little less. More exports than imports. Colonies exist to enrich and supply the mother country. 

• Joint-stock companies were created (thanks Dutch people!) where private investors pooled money together for exploration and expansion rather than the government. ← Dutch East India Co. and British East India Co. 

• Commercial Revolution: goods are traded for silver and gold instead of other goods. 

• Triangular trade: manufactured goods to West Africa from Europe, slaves to the Americas, raw materials to Europe. 

• Europeans and Muslims fought over control of Indian Ocean trade routes. In 1509, Portugal defeated Muslims over trade rights with their advanced ships. But they did not succeed when fighting Moroccan Muslims on land. 

• Monopolies were established, which granted certain merchants or governments exclusive trading rights at given ports. (Tobacco!)

• There was still a continuity of traditional regional markets with respect to trade. 

• Trade of peasant and artisan goods still flourished like silk from China. 

• African states suffered from the slave trade but it was so profitable that they continued. 

• Natives experienced the erasure of their culture when so many died from European diseases. For example, Hernan Cortes burned Mayan books and enforced the Spanish language to diminish culture. 

• Africans syncretized their beliefs in African spirits with major doctrines of Christianity. Indigenous people in the Americas embraced Christianity as well and combined it with their holy days as well. 

Challenges to State Power: 

• Portugal had many slave raids into tribes like those of Ana Nzinga’s Ndongo Queendom (West Africa). The queen asked for diplomacy and to stop the raids. They still took land from her kingdom though. So, she allied with the Dutch where they went against influence for a couple of decades. 

• In 1774, runaway serfs southwest of Moscow named Cossacks led the Pugachev Rebellion against serfdom made by Catherine the Great. They were still crushed by the power of the Russian state. 

• The Maratha, Hindu protestors, rose up to go against their invasion of their beliefs and succeeded which replaced the Mughal Empire with the Maratha Empire. 

• In the Pueblo Revolt (1680), Pueblo and Apache natives went against the Spanish in North American Spanish colonies. They killed colonizers and burned churches for forcing them to convert to Christianity. The Spanish still came back 10 years later. 

• The Metacom’s War was the natives’ last large-scale attempt to drive out the British. Britain won. 

• The Stono Rebellion occurred where 20 enslaved people gathered at the Stono River in South Carolina. Tired of their servitude, they killed white people and put their heads outside of a warehouse. They chanted liberty while killing as many white people as they could when they marched throughout towns. The British won and made labor even harder. (a similar rebellion is Nat Turner’s in Virginia)

Changing Social Hierarchies: 

• In the Ottoman Empire with their warrior aristocracy, they began fighting for power with the ulama (Islamic scholars who held the power). Janissaries also wanted power and staged coups to overthrow the sultan. The empire suffered with a string of incapable sultans which caused the aforementioned unrest. Viziers, advisors of the sultan, consolidated power for themselves. Wives and concubines of the sultan helped promote their own sons to positions of power (did not have direct power in the empire). With this system of harem politics, they could still hold some power I guess)

• When Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492 (in 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed the ocean blue and expelled the Jews from España too!), they found sanctuary in Istanbul. They still had to pay the jizya tax and were confined to certain parts of the city.

• The Qing rulers (Manchurian) kept some Chinese institutions like the civil service exam and the bureaucracy to gain approval from the Han Chinese population. However, government workers had to wear traditional braided queues of the Manchurians. People did not like giving up their culture to foreign rulers so many were massacred. The Han Chinese had lower status. 

• Boyars in Russia were on top, under the Czar, and were the landed aristocracy. Many of the peasants became serfs for the boyars. The boyars opposed expansionist policies of Ivan IV and went into battle, where the Czar won. He took away their land and relocated them to Moscow to keep an eye on them. 

• Latin America (Spanish imposed):

• Mit’a and Encomienda system. 

Unit Four Overview

• Continuity and change is important for ocean based exchanges. 

Unit Five - The Revolutions (1750-1900)

The Enlightenment: 

The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in the 18th century that advocated the use of reason to reconsider the accepted ideas and social institutions of the time. The Scientific Revolution and the humanism of the Renaissance had a baby! Scholars applied human reason to natural laws. Thought that if they tapped into the wisdom of such natural laws and applied them to society, progress would occur. It is the working of our minds and the understanding of natural laws that will lead us to the truth. 

• Empiricism: reality is comprehended by the human mind. Francis Bacon said let’s conduct scientific experiments to find out if things are true or false. 

• John Locke made the book Two Treatises on Government. He went against the whole idea of divine right and said that humans have natural rights like life, liberty, and property. He believed that humans and the government had a social contract with each other; humans have to willingly give up some of their power to a government to protect their natural rights. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (believed social contract is also btwn ppl, extreme democracy, and men > women) not just also contributed to the foundations of the social contract, writing that government its rights to exist and to govern by the consent of the governed (the citizens). This led to debates on society functions, government, and other philosophical topics. Obviously, during this time period, these were very radical stances. 

• More people started to challenge the monarch's absolute power, mandatory religions, traditional ideas, and inspire movements. 

• Communist Manifesto of 1848 (out of timeline but one of many big ideology changes). 

• New idea of revolting against established power caused revolutions. 

• The mindset of equality broke up empires and the proliferation of constitutional governments around the world and grew nationalism in some places. 

• Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations in 1776 which criticized mercantilist economies. He advocated for laissez faire, which meant that the government should leave the market alone and that there was an infinite amount of wealth that could be made by business people (unlike mercantilism which stated finite amounts measured in like idk gold and silver). 

• People began to reexamine their relationship with god and gave way to Deism, where they acknowledge god as their creator but god doesn't intervene in history (often depicted as a watchmaker). 

• Conservatives resisted this revolution of thought and favored tradition. 

• With all this talk about human rights, women were like damn did y'all forget about us? Mary Wollstonecraft made the Vindication of the Rights of Women and in America there was the Seneca Falls Woman’s Rights Convention (1848). Both discussed women’s suffrage and rights. The Seneca Falls Convention resulted in the documentation of the Declaration of Sentiments. It basically said that women should be free from men’s hold on their property and income. Olympe de Gouges wrote feminist plays (then got head chopped off :c).

• In the US, the slave trade was banned in 1808 but enslaved people population grew until the 1850s. This called for the American Civil War (1861) and the abolition of slavery. 

• 23 million serfs in Russia were emancipated. 

Nationalism and Revolution:

From ideas of the Enlightenment period, people believed that the government should give them rights, function with democratic processes, and be constitutional in nature. 

• In the Americas, the American Revolution took place because of their increasing independence to the British crown but they still had to pay taxes with no representation in Parliament. July 4th 1776, America declared their independence. The Declaration of Independence was oozing with Enlightenment thinking, specifically John Locke’s [natural rights]. In 1783, they were officially their own nation. 

• The American Revolution caused the French Revolution to take place as well. In great debt from war spending, Louis XVI in 1789 called a meeting of the Estates-General (represented the three states of the French which were the clergy, nobility, and the commoners). The commoners received the same amount of representation as the upper classes while taking up 98% of the population. So, they broke away from the general and became the National Assembly. Tennis Court Oath happens around here. Louis got mad and threatened to arrest its leaders, so on July 14th 1789 they stormed the Bastille prison. This caused many more revolts so Louis was forced to reorganize the government to give a significant voice to the National Assembly. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was created with heavy influence from the Declaration of Independence and the Enlightenment period while also forcing a limited monarchy. Louis got mad again but this just led to the Reign of Terror [Maximilien Robespierre] where he was beheaded.

• France’s colony in Haiti had a huge population of enslaved Haitians with a few plantation owners. They got inspired by the French Revolution with Toussaint Louverture leading the rebellion. 

• Britain annexed New Zealand in 1840 and dominated the natives called the Maori. They led rebellions as well but in 1872, Britain defeated the troops and held a tighter clamp on this colony. 

• Grito de Dolores: Sep of 1810 ↓ [Miguel Hidalgo] (Mexico)

• The Creoles in Latin America, with Simon Bolivar as their leader (Jose de sa Marit was by his side), rose up against Spain in the Latin American Revolution. He was able to gain Gran Colombia. The document of this also was laced with Enlightenment thought. 

• After the fall of Rome, Italy was split up with competing states. So, with a sense of nationalism, in 1848 prime minister of one of the states Count Cavour wanted to unify Italy under his House of Savoy. Through strategic alliances and battles, he unified Italy.

• In 1848, Otto von Bismarck planned three wars to inspire the German people to be united and in 1871 he united the nation when he founded the new German Empire. 

Industrial Revolution:

Make stuff with machines instead of hands! 

• This phenomenon started in England because of their proximity to water (access to easy and inexpensive trade), raw materials (lots of coal which is the main source of energy and iron which was used to create the revolution’s infrastructure), increased agricultural productivity (crop rotations, seed drill, and more technological innovations), urbanization (machines doing the work so farms did not need their labor), legal protection of private property (business owners can make their own stuff without getting robbed), access to foreign resources (access to lots of raw materials from their global empire), the accumulation of capital (British capitalists could invest into new entrepreneurial opportunities), and factories (goods could be made in mass). Richard Arkwright made the water frame in 1769, and James Hargraves invented the spinning jenny in 1760: connecting the two inventions made textiles at faster speeds than a human. Putting this stuff in a big room made factories. Eli Whitney made interchangeable parts, which birthed the assembly line. 

Ind. Rev. Spreads:

The industrial process spread to other parts of Europe (Belgium, France, Germany) that had the same advantages as Britain. 

• In the US, many German and Irish immigrants arrived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in urban centers. Factory worker populations consisted of them. 

• Russia’s industrialization in the 19th century focused on the Trans-Siberian Railroad that stretched from Moscow to the Pacific Ocean for trade with eastern states like China. They also wanted to expand their steel industry, which they succeeded in 1900 when they reached fourth as the largest producers of steel in the world.

• Japan began industrializing because they wanted to keep their sacred culture and doing so would keep western influence out of their borders. (Meiji Restoration)

• India was severely oppressed by British powers so there was a sharp decline in shipbuilding. The British Navy took over in the Indian Ocean. The huge tariffs made by the British on iron also made the Indians think it was not worth it to mine the mineral and engage in any kind of economically meaningful metalwork. An uprising against British rule occurred which the British found rude so they shut down the industry which was basically gone by the 1800s. 

• Capitalism and free markets replace mercantilism. 

• Lots of changes occurring. 

• US steel (andrew carnegie), standard oil (rockefeller), etc were big global businesses and new financial structures. 

Technology in the Industrial Age:

The first Ind Rev took place in the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century.

• Steam engine by James Watt! Transportation of goods became easier as you can drive ships in any direction. Locomotives can lug goods across land and migrate people. 

The second Ind Rev took place in the late 19th century to the early 20th century. 

• This time, it focused on steel, gas, and communications. The Bessemer Process, which made steel which was stronger than iron, helped mass produce it. Oil wells were being drilled in the mid-1800s to get kerosene and gasoline. The former powered lamps. The latter developed the internal combustion engine in the late 19th century. The telegraph made by Samuel Morse in 1837 and the telephone made by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 advanced communication. Everything increased trade and migration. 

• 1868 Japan had a turning point. 

Industrialization and Government’s Role:

• In the Ottoman Empire, as the sick man in Europe (bad leaders, had Europe trying to colonize, not industrialize), Muhammad Ali became Egypt’s governor (part of Ottoman Empire at the time) and brought it into an industrial age. This is an example of state-sponsored industrialization. Industrialized through the Tanzimat. 

• Japan feared that industrialization brought cultural change even if it brought economic prosperity. They took 400 years to open up but only because westerners kept pressing. In 1853, the US brought their navy and Commodore Matthew Perry to Japan harbors for trade. They intimidated Japan’s leader with their fleet. They decided to industrialize just enough to protect the culture that they cherished. #MeijiRestoration. They built railroads and other roads, abolished feudalism, and established a constitutional monarchy. They made everyone pay taxes :D. 

Economic Developments in the Industrial Age:

Everyone abandoned mercantilism for laissez faire capitalism. Corporations rose (descendants of joint-stock companies). 

• Limited liability: investors could only lose the amount of money they originally invested.

• HK and Shanghai Banking Corporation established by the British. After the Opium Wars, British merchants flooded into China to establish trade. The bank eventually branched out into China and Japan.

• The Unilever Corp by the Dutch and the British manufactured and sold mainly soap in nations. 

• The consumer image of the middle class arised. Their disposable income allowed them to buy lots of stuff. To appeal to them, advertising was taken away. Leisure culture in the 1800s also took place: pubs and many other forms of entertainment started to appear. 

Reactions to the Industrial Economy:

Factory workers wanted safety regulations and higher wages in their employment realm with better living conditions in their tenements. Labor unions formed. 

• Granted five week work days, limits on working hours, and minimum wage. People realized that if they had a voice, they could possibly see change so they wanted suffrage. In 1918, all men could vote despite property ownership and ten years later it was granted to women as well. Labor unions stood up for children like in 1843 where a US law was passed that stated that it was illegal for children under 10 to work in coal mines. Mandatory education was also enforced. 

• Industrialization came from an idea of free market economics which philosophers criticized as the world expanded with multinational corporations. John Stuart Mill criticized capitalism because it was selfish and harmed everyone but the ones making money. He came up with utilitarianism (thoughts acted out for the benefit of the whole rather than the individual). Homie Karl Marx wrote the Communist Manifesto to advocate for the proletariat since they were in misery from the bourgeoisie. The process was scientific socialism and the end goal is communism. 

• In 1808, Mahmud II began industrialization in the Ottoman Empire with postal service, roads, and abolishing feudalism. His sons continued this under Tanzimat. Everyone’s equality before the law and take out any corruption in government. Secular schools were enforced because before it was only the ulama that taught people. Abdul Hamid, new sultan in 1876, accepted this at first but started to fear radical reformers called the young Turks who wanted a constitutional government and to overthrow the monarchy to which Hamid exiled them. Armenians wanted reforms as well and Hamid decided to kill all of them xoxo. 

• China started to industrialize through the Self-Strengthening Movement. They did it to preserve their culture. The efforts failed but in 1894, they were defeated in the Sino-Japanese War and the Hundred Days of Reform took place. They abolished the civil service examinations and created industrial and commercial systems patterned on Western institutions so they could compete with Western economies. However, there was still resistance, for example, from Empress Dowager Cixi but she realized the corruption in the exams. China, weakened by internal rebellion, accepted help from western powers to modernize in exchange for exclusive trading rights in different parts of China.

Society in the Industrial Age:

• The rapid increase of population in urban areas called for ugly tenements. Disease spread like cholera from no indoor plumbing. Then they called for better sewage, cleaner water supply, and efficient ways to take out the trash. 

• The white collar workers emerged from the growing middle class who worked at government official jobs. Top of the social hierarchy was still the industrialists. 

• There was a huge societal shift when families separated and did not spend much time together compared to being on farms. 

• The Cult of Domesticity emerged as well. Some women hated this and led events like the Seneca Falls Convention. 

• Water supply was contaminated by human and factory waste. 

Unit Six Imperialism and Expansion (1750-1900)

Rationales for Imperialism: 

A new wave of empire building, imperialism, occurred during industrialization. Europeans believed in the superiority of their race and culture. They thought they had a “white man’s burden”. 

• Happens at the same time as industrialization. 

• Darwinism: only the fittest survived and the weakest were kicked out. People applied that to social and political realities. Social Darwinism: why shouldn’t stronger nations eat weaker nations? 

• To spread religion, the nations had to present almost everywhere. Schools taught religion in the colonies and even math/science. Missionaries also built hospitals and helped abolish the slave trade through writings and interventions. 

• Britain, after losing America and gaining nationalist ideas, sought more money and found many places elsewhere, specifically India, Algeria, Senegal, and China. Japan with the same motivations encroached on Korea’s economy and politics in the late 1800s. This angered Qing leadership in China, leading to the Sino-Japanese War (1894). Japan already modernized during the Meiji Restoration so they defeated China and gained Korea as a colony. 

• There was a demand for raw materials and markets to sell manufactured goods. The British, Dutch, and French chartered trade agreements with local leaders in India, East Indies, and East Africa. This especially gave them the right to defend these trading posts. Europeans eventually raised armies to take these territories. In the early 1800s, Britain had the wealthiest economy in the world. Pacific nations lost in this transaction. 

State Expansion: 

• European influence in Africa was restricted to trading posts. They did not really care for them because they wanted shorter access to raw materials traded from Asian countries. The Suez Canal was made in 1869 to connect the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. Unrest in the region in 1882 caused Britain to take control of it from the Ottomans. Britain had diplomatic ties with African leaders on the other side of the continent but threw the agreements away and took over by force when they began to grow imperialistic. African leaders were so rude and resisted western influence when Britain established colonial holdings in Sierra Leone, Gambia, Lagos, and the Gold Coast.

• France ousted the Ottomans from Algeria in 1830 and established a settler colony. 

• Otto von Bismarck of Germany recognized the war that might occur during the Scramble for Africa so he called the Berlin Conference in 1884 to divide Africa (#dbq!).

• Berlin king Leopold II pushed into the Congo and claimed it as his own personal holding. He gained much wealth by exploiting the Congolese for ivory and rubber. The Belgian state took over in 1908 and conditions improved a little bit. 

• With an already established presence from the Brit Ind East Corp, Britain took over parts of the weakened Mughal Empire and eventually all of India with their own troops and sepoys that joined their effort (Indian soldiers themselves).

• China in a weak state blown over by natural disasters and internal rebellion, Western powers demanded trading rights in Spheres of Influence. 

• Japan expanded into Korea, Southeast Asia, parts of China, and some Pacific islands. 

• The Dutch also inserted dominance in Southeast Asia with their Corp but failed with corruption in their companies. So the Dutch government took everything for themselves. 

• Australia and New Zealand were taken by Britain into colonies. The former was a penal colony where Britain sent their convicts by conquering the whole continent by the 1820s. They then discovered copper and gold and the perfect climate for wool so they turned it into an official colony. New Zealand became a settler colony where Maori people were separated. The Maori lost in rebellion, stirring deep resentment towards the colonizers. 

• In the US, they wanted to expand westward (Manifest Destiny) but natives were in the way so they enacted the 1830 Indian Removal Act to place them in reservations in the midwest. The natives had to travel through the Trail of Tears to their new homes. They wanted more so they went into war with Spain in 1898 (Spanish-American War) to gain Guam, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and the Philippines.

• In Russia, Catherine II won half of Poland from the Ottomans and Alexander I annexed Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia, Moldova, Finland, and Manchuria from China. 
  
  

Indigenous Response to State Expansion: 

A surge of nationalism within natives usually surged to oppose imperialism. 

• In 1763, Americans settled in the Ohio River Valley. The Cherokee Natives that they encountered actually assimilated to American culture, including setting up a constitutional government. But they found gold so they removed them! The belief of the Ghost Dance rose in native populations in the latter half of the 18th century to rid their land of white men. The movement culminated in the conflict of the Wounded Knee in 1890 where the Sioux Indians were defeated by Americans (last Indian revolt against Americans). 

• In Peru, cacique (hereditary leader) Tupac Amaru II led rebellions against the Spanish which led to other revolts across Latin America. He was captured and this was the last native revolt against Spain. 

• Benito Juarez who had Zapotec blood (native) did not appreciate the foreign influence and France was ousted after three years of armed resistance. 

• In South Africa, Europeans made governments with European leaders. But the Xhosa people refused and fought for 4 decades in the 19th century. They killed all their infected cattle so the spirits will drive the Europeans away (Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement). 

• The Sokoto Caliphate in West Africa was established in a purification mission in 1804 from the Islamic Hausa tribes. They had a great economy by trading slaves. In the Berlin Conference, they were handed to the British and were dismantled in 1903 despite efforts to keep the colonizers out. 

• In 1868, Samory Toure established the Wassoulou Empire in West Africa and resisted France in Samory Toure’s War but the French won. 

• In Sudan, Islamic cleric Muhammad Ahmad saw that his region was next to where he gathered troops in the 1880s and defeated British forces in the Mahdist Revolt. However, the movement dwindled after Ahmad’s death and when the British came back in 1896, they took over. 

• The Balkan nations rose up against the Ottomans and established independent states. 

Global Economic Development: 

There were growing demands for raw materials and food for growing populations. 

• In Africa, they originally had subsistence farming but later used cash crop farming from whities. 

• In Uruguay and Argentina, cattle were raised to feed the middle class that desired beef. There were new refrigeration technologies on ships so meat could safely be shipped across oceans. 

• Guano, bat and seabird poop, piled up in Peru and Chile, which acts like a fertilizer, was needed so it became the countries’ main export. 

• At first, America provided Britain with 80% of cotton that they used but turned to Egypt for 90% when America entered the civil war in the 1800s. Colonial powers also forced natives in South America to harvest rubber. In West Africa, palm oil became a cash crop because it was used as a good lubricant for machines. In 1871, there was a diamond rush started by Cecil Rhodes who owned the De Beers Mining Company, and by 1890 South Africa exported 90% of the world’s diamonds. Rhodes became prime minister of South Africa in 1890 and his racist foundations of the country led to segregation. 

• Mother countries took raw materials from colonies, manufactured goods with it, and sold it back. This relationship connected regions. They also took food from colonies. 

• This led to depletion of colonial economies. If a colony’s main export was a certain crop and something wrong happened, they were in trouble financially. Natives also had to labor for resources at the expense of growing other necessities. 

Causes of Migration: 

• Immigrants moved to various places due to the Ind Rev globalizing economies. These people became indentured servants to pay for their passage to new land and since the abolition of slavery surfaced and labor was still needed. Most of them stayed in the countries they worked in which influenced the culture. 

• When Britain banned the slave trade in 1806, Chinese and Indian workers agreed to work at very low wages (basically slaves) and in 1877, laws were passed to improve working conditions. 

• Devil’s Island in French Guiana became a penal colony like Australia and the prisoners were underfed and worked nonstop. 

• These migrations were not necessarily voluntary but they were forced into unfair working contracts. 

• Immigrants also moved because they did not like conditions in their own country, causing diasporas (scattered population whose origin lies in a different geographic location). 

• Indians living in a poor time period migrated out of the country. Britain came with the offer to work in indentured servitude in Mauritius and many countries did the same. Chinese immigrants received the same but mostly to America where many worked on the Trans-Continental Railroad. 

• The Irish fled to the US for political reasons; Ireland became part of the UK in 1801 but their parliament was abolished. They were also Roman Catholic while England was Anglican and received much discrimination. Additionally, there was a potato famine for 4 years. 

• Many scholars, engineers, and geologists moved with masses to settler colonies because the country wanted to incorporate western technology and extend industrialization into the territories. 

• Japanese people migrated to Mexico but were unsuccessful living there (still settled). They also migrated to Hawaii and the western US. 

Effects of Migration: 

• With lots of men leaving to work, women had a larger part in society as there was usually no man to replace the husband. When the man was done, the family usually moved to the place he worked in and the woman had a stronger voice in the family. 

• When people migrated, they sometimes found people of similar backgrounds and huddled together in ethnic enclaves. Chinese people usually had a better time serving in Asian parts of the world. Indians were flung to all parts of the British Empire. They worked in Southeast Asia under Kangani where they received better treatment than men! Irish people in the Americas created labor unions which affected laborers throughout the country and spread their Catholicism due to their large numbers. 

• Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 in US and same thing in Australia during the Gold Rush in 1850-1860 to restrict the flow of Chinese immigrants. In 1901, Australia passed a law to disallow anyone who is not British to immigrate there since Chinese people were crowded in urban centers to be more visible (White Australia Policy). 

Economic Imperialism: 

Economic imperialism is when one country has significant economic power over another. 

• Britain made Indian workers export mainly cotton for their textiles. 

• Britain also dumped lots of silver into China because they wanted lots of Chinese goods but China did not want British goods. So, they made Indian workers harvest opium to smuggle and sell to the Chinese. They got addicted. The government did not like this so they started the Opium Wars to oust the British. Britain won with their superior military from industrializing and forced open more trading ports and forcing a free-trade agreement including opium. This showed to colonizers that better countries could take on weaker nations so Japan, Russia, France, US all went to get China’s Spheres of Influence. 

• The US went to Central America with the Monroe Doctrine of 1823 to get the area for themselves for trade and other goods with no European interventions. Britain similarly got Argentina cattle, railroads, and others. They helped open the port of Buenos Aires. Spain used Chile for mainly agricultural exports but it all turned to copper when it was found. 

Unit Seven - Global Conflict (1900-Present)

Power Shifts after 1900: 

• Russia went through a Russian Revolution because power refused to give voting rights and education and industrialize beyond just infrastructure to gain wealth. Russian citizens were shot in the Bloody Sunday Massacre of 1905 when they protested. They also lost the 1856 Crimean War to the Ottomans and the 1905 Russo-Japanese War to the Japanese. The Vladimir-led Bolsheviks overthrew the Czarist government in 1917 to represent the working class. A communist government was set up which abolished free trade, nationalized factories and industries, and redistributed crops to peasants to feed urban workers. Western powers became uneasy from this massive change (communism and democracy became a major theme for the rest of the 20th century). 

• Food supply was low and could not feed the increasing population in China. Tax revenue was also low so proper infrastructure was not provided. In 1900, the economy was in a huge decline from industrialized powers forcing free trading rights on them. Sun Yat Sen led an overthrow of the Qing dynasty in 1911. He continued Confucian and other traditional values but aimed to change the unequal wealth distribution and make the government democratic (only to educated people though). 

• The Tanzimat of the Ottomans also advocated Turkification of citizens to make all of them embrace Turkish culture. These caused the large-scale massacres of Armenian Christians that lived in the Ottoman Empire. In 1923, the Republic of Turkey was established under Mustafa Kemal/Ataturk. He sympathized with the young Turks and worked to unhinge Turkish culture from Islam and transform it into western democracies. 

• Independent Mexico in the beginning of the 20th century, Porfirio Diaz was an authoritarian leader that kept letting foreign investors have control over resources. There was an unfair wealth distribution—1% of Mexican people owned 90% of Mexican land. In 1910, Diaz imprisoned Fransisco Madero who was his opponent in the next presidential election which sparked the Mexican Revolution. Madero escaped and rallied allies to overthrow Diaz and exile him from Mexico. In 1917, a constitution made to solve problems under Diaz was made. 

Causes of WWI:

Many major events that occurred in the 20th century had causes from WWI, direct or indirect. 

• MAIN WWI causes: militarism, alliances, imperialism, nationalism. 

• Militarism: desire of a state to develop and maintain a powerful military in order to aggressively advance their own interests. In 1914, Germany and Britain had huge sums of money to bulk up their militaries. 

• Nations formed alliances because of tensions between certain countries. 

• Imperialism: one country brings another into its political (or economic) dominion. 

• Nationalism: strong identification with one's nation and people, often with exclusion to others

• The world was a powder keg that was about to explode. June 28th 1914-  Austro-Hungarian leader Franz Ferdinand was assassinated by a member of the Serbian Black Hand (Gavrilo Princip) to show that Bosnia would not fall under Austria-Hungary. The whole alliance system stood up. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Germany came to Austria-Hungary’s aid, Russia came to aid Serbia, Germany declared war on Russia, Germany declared war on France, Britain declared war on Germany, Austria declared war on Russia. 

• Governments used extensive propaganda to mobilize the populace on the homefront. 

• Mandate is colonialism to build empires (former Ottoman Empire). Turkey and Iraq were formed from the former Ottoman Empire. 

Conducting WWI: 

• The war stretched for 4 years from the new technologies.

•  Improved machine guns could fire 500 rounds per minute, devastating any soldiers that were in a shooter’s range. France developed tear gas, Germany developed chlorine gas. 

• Trench warfare spread disease and discomfort. There were constant stalemates as well.

• This was a total war where every side used all of their military and domestic resources to win the war. They got people energized through propaganda. Japan went with the Allies because they wanted German-owned Pacific Islands. All colonial soldiers fought for their colonizers. 

• The US got involved when Germany sacked the Lusitania and got the Zimmerman telegram. The telegram said that Mexico should go into war with the US so Germany did not have to deal with them in turn for Mexican land lost in the Mexican-American War. Their untouched front helped strengthen the Allies.

• Allies won and they made the Treaty of Versailles at the Paris Peace Conference (1918) that blamed everything on Germany. The Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary were split into Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. 

Economy in the Interwar Period:

Lots of Allied Powers lost a lot of money and employed people in the war effort. Central Powers lost a lot too.

• Germany thought that if they ended the war and annexed rich lands, they could pay back war debt but they lost. They printed more money, causing hyperinflation. 

• Colonial economies depleted because they relied on their parent countries. 

• In 1929, the US had an economic crash (Great Depression). 

• British economist John Maynard Keynes tried to push government involvement despite laissez faire economics because many people are suffering. They borrowed money through deficit spending. 

• FDR thought the idea above was great so he made the New Deal to put people to work on government projects and borrowed money. 

• In 1921, Lenin in Russia proposed the New Economic Plan which reintroduced private trade. Stalin came in and had the Five Year Plans to collectivize agriculture (failed from people being mad) and industrialize to get ahead of the European counterparts (success!). 

• The Institutional Revolutionary Party came into Mexico to control things after the Revolution. They improved the economy by nationalizing the oil industry. 

• Fascism: an authoritarian and nationalistic system of government and social organization. This glorified military might and the necessity of armed struggle. They had a heavy hand on the economy and blamed ethnic groups for problems. 

• Benito Mussolini in Italy reorganized the Italian economy in terms of corporatism. Each sector of the economy were organs of the same body. Fascist Italy was a totalitarian state that controlled every aspect of Italian society. 

• Adolf Hitler mirrored the fascist Italians with his Nazi party. He recognized Germany’s depression by canceling German reparation payments and led German government deficit spending to build up the military and take on infrastructure projects. 

• Brazil slowly transitioned from an agricultural society to an industrial one. In 1930, a coup made Getulio Vargas as president and he organized it into a fascist society. He limited freedom in the “New State” program.

Unresolved Tensions After WWI: 

Colonizers still held onto their colonies with imperialistic intentions after WWI which led to unresolved tensions in the interwar period. Nationalistic views brewed among the colonies. They believed that fighting in the war would gain them respect but this was only granted to some Eastern European nations. 

• In the late 19th century, Indians formed the Indian National Congress to formally register complaints against the British government. The flame for independence was lit in the Massacre of Amritsar. In 1919, two soldiers were arrested and Indian nationalistic protestors went against this action. This was peaceful but turned violent when soldiers shot fire on them and Sikh party goers that were in town for a celebration. They got Mohandas Gandhi to fight for independence. Muslims who were scared that their voices would not be heard were split into Pakistan. 

• In 1919, the Korean leader was believed to be poisoned by Japanese infiltrators. So this sent Korea to a tipping point. In the March 1st movements, over 2 million Koreans opposed Japanese colonial rule and Japanese troops squashed them brutally. 

• May 4th movement in China. They were part of the Allies to take back land taken from Germany. Japan wanted them too and the Allies gave it to them instead. Protests leaned towards communism as it opposed western democracy. The CCP led by Mao Zedong incited the peasants to rise in revolution instead of the working class like in Russia. The Chinese Nationalist Party led by Sun Yat Sen wanted China independent and industrialized. They worked together to make China independent. Chiang Kaishek took control after Sun died and despised Mao’s communism and led the Chinese Civil War of 1927. 

• West Africans led revolts like railroad strikings in 1917 and worker industry strikes in 1946. 

Causes of WWII:

• French leader Ferdinand Foch even saw that the Treaty of Versailles would cause another war. 

• After WWI the German Kaiser was replaced with a parliament-like style named the Weimar Republic. Citizens wanted a more central government. So the Nazis took over in 1932 by democratic processes. In 1933, Hitler was appointed chancellor and became president in 1934 after Paul von Hidenburg died. 

• Blamed the Jews on everything through the Nuremberg laws. Kristallnacht was caused by the night a Jewish teenager killed a German diplomat in 1938. There were many anti-Jewish riots that burned synagogues and sent 30k Jews to concentration camps. 

• Hitler also wanted lebensraum for Germans (living spaces) all throughout Europe. He made an alliance with Italy in 1936 called the Rome-Berlin Axis and with Japan in the anti-Comintern Pact. This created the Axis Powers in the war. 

• Hitler broke the treaty and strengthened troops and sent them to Rhineland (Allied troops occupied there) in 1936. Britain and France just said no so he went and took more land. He moved into Austria and Nazi Austrians welcomed him to occupy the country in 1938. He wanted Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia because there were German speaking people there. Neville Chamberlain believed giving up the land would keep peace in the Munich Agreement. He took the whole country in 1939. They headed for Poland but Britain said they would protect it when Germany invaded and allied with Russia and France. The Allied Powers declared war on Germany. 

• In 1937, fighting blew up in Japanese and Chinese troops and this began the war in East Asian territories. 

Conducting WWII:

• This was also a total war. Colonial countries fought for their parent countries and there was atomic weaponry involved. 

• Japan wanted Southeast Asia after being rejected to take Siberia and the US totaled them economically since it was their territory. As revenge, they attacked Pearl Harbor on 12.7.1941 in hopes that they would submit under Japanese imperialist ambitions. 

• Europe ran into war and Germany seized this opportunity to get territory with blitzkrieg (lightning warfare including airstrikes and ambushes). They got Poland in 1939 and split it with Russia because of the Non-Aggression Pact. Germans got Denmark, Norway, Netherlands, Belgium, France, and many more. Britain was scared so the US came in with the Lend-Lease Act to send lots of artillery. Britain and Germany both attacked cities with lots of civilians but Germany failed so he turned back to go into Russia. In 1941, he invaded the USSR which broke the pact. In Leningrad, Russian troops held off Germans for three years (they froze and starved to death). 

• FDR declared war on Japan and Germany declared war on the US. American women were involved in the war effort where Japanese women were still not allowed. 

• Axis powers started to lose ground. The Allies defeated Italy in 1943 and invaded France’s Normany beach in 1944. They liberated Paris and kicked out the Nazis in August. They headed for Germany and destroyed much infrastructure already from air raids and pushed past Rhineland to Berlin. Hitler committed suicide on 4.30.1945. Germany surrendered on 5.8.1945 (Victory in Europe Day) when the remaining German commanders knew they were at defeat. 

• The US had some gains by defeating Japan on the Pacific Islands. They then chose to bomb Hiroshima on 8.6.1945 and on Nagasaki three days later. On 8.14.1945 (Victory in Japan Day), Japan finally surrendered and the war was over. 

• 75 million people died in the war and ⅔ were civilians. 

Mass Atrocities:

• In Ukraine, farmers were used by Stalin in his plans to collectivize farming. They protested by burning cattle and fields, leading to famine in the country as well as the USSR. In 1932-1933, 7-10 million peasants died. 

• There was an influenza epidemic from 1918-1919 when soldiers of WWI came home from abroad. 20-50 million deaths. 

• Firebombing started in WWII where bombs hit an area and then started a fire. The Allied powers firebombed Hamburg and Dresden in Germany (75k deaths). The US ordered 2k tons of firebombs from 334 B-29 Bombers in Tokyo (90-100k deaths). 

• There was an Armenian Christians genocide in Turkey where 600k-1.5mil Armenians were killed in a systemic ethnic cleansing. In 1915, Ottomans accused them of colluding with Russian enemies and sent them to concentration camps. 

• Hitler ordered the Holocaust. He placed Slavic people, political opponents, disabled people, homosexuals, and many others in concentration camps to labor for lebensraum. The biggest of groups sent were Jews. It began with the Nuremberg Laws that pushed the minorities to the margins of society and gave them ghettos to live in. In 1942, he implemented the Final Solution which aimed to rid Europe of Jews entirely (extreme anti-Semitism). They were sent to death camps (Auschwitz and Dachau). Nazis perfected mass slaughter through gas chambers and crematoria (6 million killed). 

• Serbian nationalist Slobodan Milosevicc decided to rid Bosnia of Muslims when the Berlin Wall fell (collapse of USSR) (300k killed). 

• Tutsis in Rwanda were favored by the Belgian government and gave them power, which gave resentment in the majority Hutus. Rwanda became independent in 1962 and the Hutus, as the majority, easily gained control over the government. They enacted laws against the Tutsis and they responded by killing the Hutu president. The Hutus slaughtered the Tutsis (500k-1 mil killed).

Additional:

• The Qing dynasty was destroyed in 1911. 

• Latvia, Estonia, and Poland stemmed from former Russian territory. It collapsed as it was not ruled by Nicholas II and was ruled by Trotsky and Bolshevik in 1917. 

• Nehru (prime minister) and Gandhi became leaders of the newly independent India. 

• Planes were just invented in WWI. 

Unit Eight - Cold War, Communism, and Decolonization 

Setting the Stage for the Cold War and Decolonization: 

The Cold War (state of hostility between two countries which does not result in open warfare) was an epic standoff between the US and the Soviet Union for 40 years. Decolonization occurred where colonial empires broke up and colonies began to form into independent states. 

• The Big Three (US, Britain, USSR) met on several occasions to arrange the aftermath of WWII. 

• Yalta Conference (1944): FDR pressed for free elections in East Europe but Stalin wanted it under Soviet influence so it could act as a buffer zone between him and Europe. He did not want more European invasions. He still promised vague assurances that free elections would happen. 

• Potsdam Conference (July 1945): Truman, next US prez, demanded for free elections again but Stalin already inserted troops in Eastern Europe. This drove the divide between the two nations even further. 

• The USSR and US were both superpowers at this time. The US was mostly untouched besides Pearl Harbor during the war so they were able to provide $12bill in aid for restoring European cities (Marshall Plan). The USSR had a huge population so they had some people to spare. Stalin has also been aggressively building up industrial capacity of the nation. 

• Big powers in the world were exhausted by WWII so colonies used this time to gain their independence when their mother countries could not send troops to oppress freedom. The USSR and US helped these states as well. 

The Cold War:

The US and USSR had opposing economies and politics. Their ideologies had tendencies to spread and could not just contain themselves in their own borders.

• The US was capitalist (goods are owned by individuals and they make economic decisions on their own self-interest). The USSR was communist (government owned businesses and property that were distributed equally to the citizens). 

• The US was democratic while the USSR was authoritarian led by a single political party and a strong despotic leader. 

• To fight without actually fighting, the two nations had other countries become economically independent of them. 

• The USSR had the Soviet bloc in Eastern Europe (Bulgaria, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Romania). Stalin collectivized agriculture and made everything serve the Soviet Russian economy and not their own populations. 

• The US emerged from WWII with a booming economy. They sent billions of dollars (Marshall Plan) in aid to western European countries suffering with economic instability so they would not slip into communism. This was part of George Kennan’s plan to contain communism as it was difficult to get rid of it where it already exists. Truman’s Doctrine gave that US policy fuel. He promised military aid to any country (specifically Greece and Turkey) threatened by the spread of communism. 

• When Stalin saw the atomic bombs set off into Japan, he got jealous so the two nations started an arms race. In 1945, the US dropped their first iteration of a bomb. In 1947, the USSR dropped theirs which was more deadlier than America’s. In the 1950s, they both made hydrogen bombs which were 1k times more deadlier than the atomic bombs. By 1959, the USSR developed an intercontinental ballistic missile capable of delivering a nuclear warhead to the US. They both never fired weapons at each other because it would lead to mutual assured destruction. 

• The USSR sent their first satellite in 1957 (Sputnik). The US sent theirs in 1958. In April of 1961, Yuri Gagarin from the USSR was the first man in space. Alan Shepherd was America’s first man in May. This crescendoed to the 1969 moon landing from the US. 

• The Non-Aligned Movement supported by newly freed Asian and African states wanted nothing to do with the conflict between the USSR and the US as the competition grew very aggressive. Member nations desired an alternative framework of their budding social, political, and economic lives than the one dominated by the huge conflict. Kwame Kkrumah of Ghana liberated Ghana from Britain and created the Organization of African Unity which advocated the liberty of Africans worldwide. He pushed for African nationalism. Sukarno, first leader of Indonesia, became prez in 1945 and gave way to the Bandung Conference of 1955 which birthed the Non-Aligned Movement. Jomo Kenyatta helped liberate Kenya. 

Effects of the Cold War:

• The US created NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) in 1949. The USSR created the Warsaw Pact (included all the -stan’s besides Pakistan). 

• There were proxy wars (indirect fighting) in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean which took global significance when the US and USSR took different sides in these local wars. 

• The Allies divided Korea into North and South after WWII. The Soviets occupied the north and the US occupied the south. In 1950, North invaded South to create a single state under its own leadership. The UN came in to help SK. The Soviets did not send troops but did send money and weapons. The UN pushed the Northern troops to the Chinese border. The Chinese feared that the UN would invade China so they sent troops to the North. NK was able to push SK to the 38th parallel and ended the conflict in stalemate in 1953. 

• Angolan Civil War: Angola was a colony under Portugal. Portugal mushed a bunch of rival peoples under one government. They all fought for independence and got what they wanted but now they had to decide which one would lead Angola. The US, USSR, and South Africa backed different groups, which became another battleground for a larger conflict. 

• Contra War in Nicaragua: The Sandinista National Liberation Front (1979), self-proclaimed socialists, seized power in Nicaragua. The US did not like socialists and backed contras who tried to overthrow the Sandinistas who had support from the Soviets. The contras committed many human rights violations and the conflict ended in a cease fire where the Sandinistas were defeated in the next election. 

• The crisis moment for the arms race was the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. Failing to oust Fidel Castro in Cuba, Nikita Khruschev sent nuclear missiles to Cuba which the US found in 1962 and were enraged. The US did the same with Turkey though. JFK ordered a naval blockade around Cuba. The fear and tension in the days that followed showed the problems of the proliferation (buildup) of nuclear weapons. So, in 1968, there was the creation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.

The Spread of Communism after 1900: 

• In 1927, there was a bitter conflict between Chinese communists and Chinese nationalists about who would lead China. But in 1931, Japan invaded northern China so by 1935, communists and nationalists united for a quickie to rid the Japanese. After Japan was defeated in WWII, the two sides of China continued their fighting. The communists led a communist revolution where Chairman Mao Zedong stood in Tiananmen Square in 1949 and proclaimed the founding of the People’s Republic of China. He nationalized industries and distributed land among peasants. His major reform program was called the Great Leap Forward where peasant lands were collectivized by the state. Mao did not want rebellion like what happened with Stalin so he sent them to reeducation camps. There was intense physical and psychological strain and reordering that occurred to the protestors. Harvests failed staggeringly but he did not want the world to see China’s problems so he kept exporting grain that was managed to be grown. 20 million Chinese people died. 

• During WWII, the Iranian Shah made it clear that he would support Hitler (Iran remained neutral). Britain and Russia invaded the country to set up a new shah sympathetic to their interests. In 1951, Iranian nationalists overthrew that shah and installed their prime minister in 1953. Britain and Russia repeated what they did and installed Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. He was authoritarian and harsh in his policies but he did give social welfare and women’s suffrage. In the White Revolution, the government forcibly bought land from wealthy landowners and resold it to peasants at a fraction of the price. 

• After WWII, Vietnam declared independence from Japan who occupied it during the war and from France who colonized it before the war. Communists came to power in North Vietnam and seized land from landowners and redistributed it to the poor. 

• India became an independent state in 1947 and instituted land reform, mostly successful in Kerala where tenants gained the right to purchase land and in 1969 laws were passed to allow full ownership of their land. 

• In 1974 Ethiopia, Mengistu Haile led an overthrow of the Ethiopian government and established a socialist government in place of the Western puppet one. The Soviets supported this and redistribution of land prioritization led to famine once again. 

Decolonization After 1900: 

• India: Gandhi led the Indian National Congress in 1920 for Indian independence. He wanted non-violent civil disobedience. Britain, tired from WWII, agreed in negotiations with India to make it independent in 1947. The Muslim minority were made into Pakistan along with India’s independence. 

• French West Africa: Niger, Ivory Coast, Senegal, etc were occupied by the French in small occupational forces and relied on cooperation from local governments to maintain influence. The nations gained independence by 1959 when France ended this relationship. 

• Ghana was birthed in 1957 with the leader pushing nationalistic narratives to display glory.

• In the mid-20th century, Algeria started to go against France when France just lost Indochina (Vietnam).  The 1954 war for independence began; they ordered themselves into the National Liberation Front and used guerilla warfare. There was even a divide in France itself about whether the state should be free or not since Algeria wanted to be communist. France’s Prez Charles de Gaulle in 1958 organized Algeria’s independence.

• Even after France was ousted, they came back to the southern part of Vietnam after WWII. Ho Chi Minh wanted France completely out and to unite the country under communism and led the Vietnamese War for independence in 1954. The split of the country led to another proxy war between the USSR and the US. 

• Though Egypt was independent from 1922, British troops stayed there for the Suez Canal. Gamal Abdel Nassar led the overthrow of the Egyptian king to establish the Egyptian Republic. As a socialist, he nationalized the Suez Canal. France thus ordered Israel to invade Egypt because the Suez Canal was supposed to be leased for 99 years. In the UN, the US and USSR agreed that the canal will remain an international waterway under the sovereignty of Egypt. 

• In Nigeria, they discussed independence in 1960 but there was conflict in 1967 over who would lead it. The Igbo—Christianized people—wanted to separate to become Biafra but the north wanted the rich oils of this part and won a united Nigeria. 

• Quebecois Separatist Movement: there was a divide between French Catholics in Quebec and British Protestants in the rest of Canada. The liberal party was gaining power in Quebec and there was growing nationalism among them. In 1963, violent terrorist attacks occurred which failed and Quebec remained with Canada.

Newly Independent States: 

• From 1897, Jews wanted a separate Jewish state in Israel apart from Palestine but there was an Arab Muslim population there already. The Muslims opposed this. So, the UN brokered a deal in 1948 to partition Jewish and Arab states. However, war still broke out with the US backing the Jews and neighboring Arab nations backing the Palestinians. Israel won. 

• Cambodia gained independence from France in 1953. After the Vietnam War, a communist group called Khmer Rouge overthrew the government and established communism in Cambodia. Pol Pot led it, leading to 2 million deaths. In 1978, Vietnam sent troops over to support those wanting to overthrow Pol Pot which was successful but the troops stayed. They left in 1989 and Cambodia had their first free elections in 1991. 

• In the migration of Muslims to Pakistan and Hindus down to India, the religious groups collided with one another and caused 500k-1 mil deaths. Pakistan had authoritarian leaders and India was a democracy. The two nations fought over the region of Kashmir. Both countries developed nuclear weaponry which heightened tensions. The two countries, including China, all eventually claimed bits of the region. 

• Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the world’s first prime minister for Sri Lanka. She instituted socialist economic policies to help the degrading economy. 

• In the 1960s and 70s, Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi (no relation to Mahatma Gandhi) led a 20 point plan including jailing oppositions, reformation of corrupt laws, increase in national production, and the alleviation of inflation. 

• Tanzania gained independence in 1961 and its first president was Julius Nyerere. He enacted socialist policies and made the nation less dependent on foreign aid. But this did not end well for the economy. 

• In these new states, people moved to metropoles (home territory of a colonial power). This allowed strong cultural and economic ties. 

Global Resistance to Power Structures: 

• Gandhi participated in the homespun movement where they made their own clothes to boycott the purchase of British textiles. He also led the 1930 Salt March because Britain made it illegal for Indian citizens to harvest salt for their own use. The British colonial power structure was undermined.

• MLK was the center of the civil rights movement in the 1950s-1960s to fight against black discrimination even though American citizens were constitutionally equal. He led boycotts, bus sit-ins, and massive marches to get his voice heard. He won in the Supreme Court like the Brown VS Board of Education which integrated public schools, he desegregated public transportation, and finally installed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Acts of 1965. 

• In South Africa, the white minority had a racial discrimination group called apartheid. Nelson Mandela protested this and got arrested. This was publicized and everyone went to fight against apartheid, which stopped in 1994. He got out of jail and was made prez of South Africa.

• In Spain, Francisco Franco came into power in 1939 by an overthrow of the popular elected government and he was an anti-communist.

• In Uganda from 1971-1979, Idi Amin led a military dictatorship and was nicknamed the butcher of Uganda. He intensified ethnic tensions and denied basic human rights. 500k people died from opposing him. 

• There was a rise in the military-industrial complex. Fear and economic pressures in some states caused them to worry about the future so they built up their militaries. Employment rates depended on military spending so if they decreased budgets, tons of people were going to be out of work. President Eisenhower warned against this.

• Peru’s shining path in the 1970s: Abimael Guzman created a revolutionary organization to install a communist government. In the 1980s, they started acting upon terrorist acts which led to 37k deaths. He was then captured in 1992 and the movement disintegrated. 

• al-Qaeda under Saudi billionaire Osama Bin Laden attacked western countries because of invasion from such powers. He caused 9/11. 

The End of the Cold War:

• Ronald Reagan made the Strategic Defense Initiative which launched detectors in space for any nuclear weapons headed to the US. The plan wasn't executed but it did create a power shift to the US from the USSR. 

• In 1970 in Afghanistan, communists led a coup to make a communist government which was unpopular. In 1979, Norma Hamid Taraki (Afghan prez) was murdered by his second in command Hafez Ulla Amin. In December of 1979, soviets killed him for not being communist-friendly and installed another soviet friendly prez. The guerilla warfare led to constant conflict for a decade putting a strain on the Soviet economy. The Soviets failed.

• The Soviet economy was already in the trash since the 60s since foreign trade was limited, government controlled farmer crops, and soviet bloc countries grew discontent with repressive policies. 

• A liberal Russian power came into the USSR, Mikhail Gorbachev. He established perestroika which allowed free enterprise in the USSR economy and Glasnost which allowed the opening of the political process and the granting of more freedom. This meant that the USSR would not come for the aid of communist regimes of eastern Europe. Democratic reforms swept across these nations even affecting the Soviet Union. In December of 1991, the USSR was officially dismantled and the Cold War was over. 

Additional Information:

• Cold War (1945-1990), signals new world order. Democracy + capitalism (freedom of voting, individual economic decisions) VS. authoritarian (dictatorship) communism. 

• Stalin died in 1953. 

• Trend of transnational movements like Pan-Africanism. 

Unit Nine - Globalization (1900-Present)

Advances in Technology and Exchange After 1900: 

• The invention of the radio in the early 20th century allowed people to communicate without an intermediary filter (no middle man to switch up words). For example, FDR used this invention to comfort American families during the Great Depression with his fireside chats. The invention of the TV in the mid-20th century allowed you to see the person that is giving speeches with the benefits of the radio as well. The invention of cellular technology in the latter half of the 20th century allowed people to communicate with others instantly. Social media gave people a platform to voice their opinions for an audience. Literal spaces were far but metaphorical spaces reduced.

• With air travel in commercial airlines, people could get to places faster. 

• Cargo could be carried in huge shipments and people had more access to products from foreign countries faster as well. 

• In the 20th century, using petroleum and natural gas upped productivity in factories. Nuclear energy was also discovered. 

• Scientists led the Green Movement; they redesigned crop DNA to give them benefits like quick harvests. Additionally, use of fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation led to a worldwide acreage devoted to farming. However, farms started to get commercialized because of expensive new technology and small farms were forced to submit to corporations. 

• In 1929, the first antibiotic was created: penicillin. Vaccines are widely used now. In the 1950s, the birth control pill was invented. Fertility rates decreased worldwide. 

Technological Advancements and Limitations: 

• Impoverished people proportionally contracted diseases easier than wealthier people due to lack of access to healthcare and poor living conditions. Malaria, cholera, and tuberculosis were often associated with the poor. 

• There was the spread of the Spanish flu in 1918 after WWI soldiers came back home after getting infected in foreign countries. 20-50 mil people died. HIV/AIDS broke out in the 1980s caused by sharing of bodily liquids. 25mil people died. In 1976, there was a major outbreak of Ebola and in 2014 in West Africa that killed 11k people. 

• Diseases associated with shorter life spans were Alzheimer’s and heart disease. 

Debates about the Environment After 1900: 

• Mass deforestation and desertification. Air quality also decreased like the Great Smog in London (1952). 

• Demand on natural resources from growing population numbers puts a great strain on the environment. People also urbanized, producing more waste than rural counterparts. They had easier access to materials so they had no sense of what it takes or the resources required to produce everything. That gap of knowledge has a way of increasing demand without respect to cost of supply. 

• Higher population increased competition for scarce non-renewable resources. There is a huge demand for oil and fresh water. The World Health Organization estimates that half of the world will have no access to clean water by 2025. 

• Climate change was also on the rise. Carbon emissions and greenhouse gasses cause drastic effects like melting of ice caps, rising sea levels, further desertification of farmland, and so on. This called for regulations like the Kyoto Protocol to reduce carbon emissions (developed nations besides the US were signed to this). There was also the 2015 Paris Agreement agreed to increase global temperature by no more than 2% compared to industrial levels. The US actually signed to this but Trump withdrew the country (asshole move) in 2017 but Biden is working to rejoin. “In a globalized world, globalized solutions are necessary” (Steve Heimler, 2021). 

Economics in the Global Age:

• Free market economics were accelerated after the Cold War. Ronald Regan and Margaret Thatcher (UK) fiercely encouraged the growth of this economic system. Pinochet of Chile led the Chilean economy away from state control into the area of the free market. The Chicago boys recognized Chile’s inflation and worked to privatize state-run businesses. This laid the foundation for future CHilean leaders to further act on helping the fairly balanced economy. In 1981, Deng Xiaoping let China taste some free market after being communist and they yearned for more (big mistake!). 

• Knowledge economy: economy which depends on the quality and quantity of information available, which can be monetized as a commodity. For example, Japan subsidized manufacturing in order to keep costs low and enact steep tariffs to stifle imported goods to change into a knowledge economy after being mercantilist. They became leaders by focusing on finance and the development of information technology. 

• Manufacturing work in the world decreased as it became more thinky. These were all transferred to Asia or Latin America since they were paid low wages in those parts of the world. 

• Transnational free trade organizations: an agreement between nations that eliminates barriers of exchange between them. For example, the NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) between Canada, US, and Mexico: Mexico would produce goods with no taxes and export them to the others. World Trade Organization (WTO): this helped facilitate the globalization of the world’s economies as it held 95% of free trade in the world between 164 nations. 

• Multinational corporation: an entity which is incorporated in one country but manufacturer and sells goods in other countries. It employs knowledge workers in their own countries, manufactures goods for sale in other countries, and sells them on the global market. 

Calls for Reform and Responses:

• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights made by the UN articulated the very basic rights of human beings and protected the rights of the global community who had long been trampled under oppressive structures like women, children, and refugees. For example, there was Unicef and the UN’s First World Conference on Women (1975). They established the International Bill of Rights for Women four years later. 

• The call for equity around the world sparked when women advocated for rights, especially in religious spheres. The Negritude Movement in West Africa celebrated Black people which brough art and literature. The Liberation Theology movement happened in Latin America where the teachings of Christ freed the economic, political, and social abuses of the oppressed (the poor). 

• Discrimination against the Dalit (India’s lowest caste) became illegal in 1949 and established the caste reservation system to hold positions in workforces for the Dalit. 

• Protest movements across China fired around China after Deng Xiaoping for democratic government. Military troops had to fire at unarmed protestors at Tiananmen Square in Beijing. Uyghurs, Muslim minorities of China, were relocated from northwest China to concentration camps. 

• Greenpeace was founded in 1971 which advocated for a clean environment by opposing practices that led to global warming, deforestation, and desertification. In 1977, Wangari Matai founded the Greenbelt Movement in Kenya. It aimed to preserve and enrich Kenya’s environment after years of colonization. 

Globalized Culture:

In globalization, countries began to cooperate with each other. Human rights movements exploded everywhere. 

• Harlem Renaissance: jazz!

• Internet and faster means of transportation in culturally connected countries. 

• Hollywood and Bollywood movies became staples. These cultures are exported into the world.

• Sports like the World Cup and the Olympics gathered countries as well. 

• Consumerism got people around the world using similar products. 

Resistance to Globalization: 

Globalization mainly benefited northern regions but the inequality started to gain acknowledgment.

• Battle for Seattle: The WTO hosted a meeting in Seattle where many protested free trade. Thus, in 2001, the World Social Forum was created which embodied the ideals of the anti-globalization costs and worked to create a more equitable world. 

• There were also rebellions against the IMF and the World Bank. These organizations worked to foster global monetary cooperation and to reduce poverty. In 1988, people protested at their meeting in West Berlin stating that they favored richer nations over poorer ones. 

• Globalization led to environmental damages, human rights abuses, and did not protect national sovereignty. 

• China believed social media caused much unrest and banned it. 

Institutions Developing in a Globalized World:

• The UN was created for nations to negotiate national problems without blowing each other up. They also kept peace through the security council but it proved difficult as big powers can veto. The international court of justice settles disputes between nations when international law is applicable. The economic and social council of the UN directs all humanitarian and economic projects that members agree upon. There is also the World Food Program to feed the needy. 

• The International Peace Bureau also helps with world peace like other nGOs (non-government organizations). It convinces nations to reduce military spending. The Red Cross responds to human needs in countries with armed conflict and natural disasters leave people without food and without water.