Progressive Era and Its Key Figures
Roosevelt's Trust Busting
Roosevelt believed big business trusts were acceptable if they behaved morally and fairly; he would attack trusts that became too monopolistic or engaged in questionable practices.
First major trust target: the Northern Securities Company, which held a virtual monopoly on railroads in the Pacific Northwest; it had bloated stock value by repeatedly splitting shares.
Roosevelt brought a lawsuit against it that led to a Supreme Court order to dissolve the company.
In total, Roosevelt brought lawsuits against 44 companies.
One of the most famous targets was Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company; the Supreme Court ordered it to be split into smaller companies.
At one point, Standard Oil controlled over 90\% of US oil refining.
Side note mentioned in the transcript: a historian claimed breakup could hurt US oil exploration and refining in the long run; the speaker notes this as an opinion, not a conclusion.
Roosevelt earned a reputation as a trust buster, but he preferred regulation of big business when possible; he was willing to break trusts if necessary.
Meat and Drug Regulation
The Jungle (1906) by Upton Sinclair exposed unsanitary conditions in Chicago meatpacking and risky practices affecting workers and meat quality.
Legislation response in 1906:
Meat Inspection Act of 1906: established a federal meat inspection system to ensure quality and safety.
Pure Food and Drug Act (often paired with the Meat Inspection Act): sought to improve safety standards for foods and medicines and curb dangerous quack remedies.
Context: earlier Progressive era allowed dangerous products to be sold; the reforms aimed to protect consumers and workers.
Side note in the transcript: a personal anecdote about a relative working as a federal meat inspector.
Environmentalism: Conservation vs Preservation
Two branches of the early environmental movement:
Conservation: careful management of natural resources, often by the federal government; example activities include selective logging and forest management.
Preservation: keeping land forever wild for future generations; prioritizing the protection of nature over resource use.
Roosevelt’s contributions to conservation:
Expanded the national forest reserves; added about 200{,}000{,}000 acres to forest reserves.
Supported preservation ideals with associates like John Muir (see below).
John Muir (environmental advocate): Scottish-born American naturalist and activist; instrumental in preserving redwood forests and promoting conservation ethics.
Personal background: immigrated from Scotland, worked in a factory, sought nature, contributed to saving Redwood forests, and inspired policy moves.
Famous image with Roosevelt in California (link to Yosemite visuals referenced).
Roosevelt’s preservation-related developments:
Expanded the National Park system.
Established Pelican Island in Florida as the first national wildlife refuge.
John Muir’s background and influence:
His experiences, advocacy, and partnership with Roosevelt helped shape early 20th-century US conservation policy.
Roosevelt, Taft, and the Road to New Nationalism
Roosevelt won the presidency after assassination of McKinley; he later did not run in 1908 and handpicked William Howard Taft as his successor.
Taft (from Ohio) and Roosevelt initially aligned on many policies but later split over policy directions.
Taft faced a political scandal involving federal land deals in his administration, and progressives felt he wasn’t progressive enough.
Taft protected more federal land than Roosevelt and pushed for safety standards for mines and railroads, and an eight-hour workday for federal employees.
He advocated a graduated federal income tax, which Congress did not realize during his term; the idea would later be implemented under Wilson.
Taft ended up as a stronger trust buster by some measures than Roosevelt.
Roosevelt’s campaign in 1912: the New Nationalism program
Government as an agent of reform; expansion of regulatory oversight.
Supported income and inheritance taxes, stronger industry regulation, workers’ compensation, minimum wage, child welfare laws, and women’s suffrage.
1912 presidential election dynamics:
Roosevelt (Progressive/Bull Moose) vs. Taft (Republican incumbent) vs. Woodrow Wilson (Democrat) and Eugene V. Debs (Socialist).
Roosevelt formed the Progressive (Bull Moose) Party after splitting from the Republicans; Wilson ran on the Democratic ticket; Debs ran for the Socialist Party.
The fourth major factor: Debs’s near-million vote count for a third party candidate (roughly 1{,}000{,}000 votes).
The split in the Republican vote helped Wilson win the presidency; Roosevelt finished a strong second in many estimates.
Cartoon snapshot referenced showing Roosevelt on the bull moose vs. Taft on the Republican elephant and Wilson on the Democratic donkey.
Woodrow Wilson: New Freedom and Foreign Policy Foundations
Wilson’s background:
Southern roots, educated at Princeton (PhD in political science), and served as governor of New Jersey.
Considered one of the more intellectual presidents; noted that he had limited foreign policy experience when he took office.
Domestic policy successes outpaced foreign policy achievements; foreign policy brought many challenges.
Wilson’s reform agenda at home:
The Underwood Tariff (often called the Underwood-Simmons tariff in some discussions): significantly lowered tariff rates.
Creation of a federal income tax via the Sixteenth Amendment; the initial tax applied to corporations and individuals earning more than 4{,}000 per year.
The Sixteenth Amendment formalized the federal income tax system.
Federal Reserve Act of 1913: established the Federal Reserve System with 12 regional banks and a central Federal Reserve Board.
Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914: created the Federal Trade Commission to oversee fair competition and prevent unfair business practices.
The Keating-Owen Act of 1916: restricted the sale across state lines of products manufactured by child labor; it did not ban child labor outright but limited cross-state commerce in such goods.
The Clean Antitrust Act of 1914 (historically known as the Clayton Antitrust Act in practice): targeted holding companies and interlocking directorates to curb anti-competitive structures.
Wilson’s diplomacy and moral purpose:
Progressive diplomacy with a missionary dimension: belief in spreading American-style democracy and Christian morality as a path to global peace and prosperity.
Emphasized morality and order in foreign relations; asserted Anglo-American institutional superiority as part of the era’s worldview.
End of the Progressive Era domestically: Wilson’s second term saw the era winding down; notable domestic achievements remained but foreign policy posed ongoing tensions.
Foreign Affairs and Imperial footnotes of the Progressive Era
Panama Canal: building a strategic waterway across Central America
Early ideas to build a canal across Central America to connect the Caribbean and Pacific.
Hay-Hunay-Varilla Treaty (Spanish name often rendered Hay-Bunau-Varilla) of 1903: created the Panama Canal Zone (10 miles wide by 48 miles long) and granted US rights to operate the canal.
US paid Panama 10{,}000{,}000 upfront and 250{,}000 per year in rent; the canal project was to be constructed and operated by a US company/contractors under government authorization.
Panama declared independence from Colombia with US recognition; the Colombian navy and army attempted to retake Panama but were blocked by American naval presence.
The canal opened in 1914; Roosevelts’ expedition to the canal site included a formal visit—the event marked the first time a sitting US president traveled outside the United States.
The canal’s construction was deadly: yellow fever and malaria were major early killers, later controlled by mosquito management, and landslides and accidents caused further fatalities.
The canal is a lock canal (six locks: three on the Pacific side and three on the Caribbean side).
Panamax is the shipping industry term for the largest ships that can safely transit the canal; newer expansions widened capacity but the core idea remains.
The United States maintained canal control until 1999 when governance transitioned; Panama’s governance over the canal area changed as part of later agreements.
After the canal decision, the United States provided Colombia with a settlement of 25{,}000{,}000 in 1921 as part of post-conflict financial settlements.
Cuba and the Platt Amendment
In 1902, Cuba gained independence; the Platt Amendment was attached to the Cuban constitution, granting the US the right to intervene in Cuba to maintain independence and order.
The Platt Amendment established a basis for US intervention in Cuban affairs when deemed necessary and shaped Cuban-US relations for decades.
Monroe Doctrine and the Roosevelt Corollary
Monroe Doctrine (1800s): warned European powers against further colonization in the Western Hemisphere and asserted the US sphere of influence.
Roosevelt Corollary (1904): an extension of the Monroe Doctrine asserting that the US could intervene directly in Latin America to stabilize the region and prevent European interference, justified by US interests and debt concerns.
This corollary led to numerous interventions in Latin American nations (e.g., Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Nicaragua) and contributed to resentment toward the US in some Latin American countries.
Far East policy and the Open Door: Philippines and China
Open Door Policy: advocated free trade for all nations in China, maintaining equal commercial opportunities.
The Philippines served as a strategic base in the Far East, reflecting US imperial reach in the region and the broader open-door approach.
The Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) and the Portsmouth Treaty (1905): Roosevelt brokered peace between Russia and Japan to preserve regional balance of power and the Open Door policy in China; Roosevelt earned the Nobel Peace Prize for this effort.
Mexico policy under Wilson
1876–1910: Mexican dictatorship; 1910–revolution led by wealthy liberals and landless peasants, producing instability along the US–Mexico border.
1913–1914: Victoriano Huerta assumed leadership; many nations recognized Huerta, but Wilson did not.
Wilson supported Venustiano Carranza and did not recognize Huerta; Carranza initially resisted US involvement but later elections were not accepted as US involvement; Wilson facilitated support for Carranza at times.
Pancho Villa (Francisco) supported Huerta; Villa was popular in northern Mexico and opposed Carranza; Villa attacked Columbus, New Mexico, crossing the border and killing Americans in an example of cross-border aggression; this provoked a US expedition led by General John J. Pershing (Black Jack Pershing) into northern Mexico to capture Villa.
The Pershing expedition engaged in several skirmishes with Villa’s forces and, inadvertently, with Carranza’s troops; after about a year, Wilson ordered withdrawal in early 1917, and the US did not capture Villa.
The Mexican War and its legacies for US–Mexico relations
The interventions and mixed policies contributed to long-term tensions and a legacy of mixed feelings toward US policy in Mexico and Latin America.
Notable figures and anecdotes
John Muir: influential conservation advocate whose partnership with Roosevelt helped shape policy on forests and wilderness preservation.
Theodore Roosevelt: a central figure in progressive reform, conservation, and foreign policy assertiveness (e.g., interventionist stance in Latin America via the Roosevelt Corollary and the Portsmouth settlement).
William Howard Taft: Roosevelt’s successor; expanded conservation, advocated safety standards, and instituted reforms (windfalls and scandals in his administration affected his popularity); became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court later.
Woodrow Wilson: championed New Freedom domestically; passed the Underwood Tariff and oversaw the introduction of a federal income tax via the Sixteenth Amendment; created the Federal Reserve System (and the FTC); pursued Missionary Diplomacy in foreign affairs.
Eugene V. Debs: Socialist candidate in 1912 who garnered nearly 1{,}000{,}000 votes, reflecting a notable third-party impact on the election.
Pancho Villa: Northern Mexican revolutionary leader who played a pivotal role in Mexican politics and US–Mexico cross-border tensions during Wilson’s presidency.
John Hay: Secretary of State who negotiated the Hay–Pauncefote Treaty and laid groundwork for the Panama Canal project; involved in the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty negotiations.
Summary of key reforms and policies (highlights)
Domestic reforms advancing progressive ideals:
Trust busting and regulation: Northern Securities, Standard Oil cases; broader antitrust activity.
Food and drug safety reforms: Meat Inspection Act (1906), Pure Food and Drug Act (1906).
Fiscal reforms: Underwood Tariff (lower tariffs); Sixteenth Amendment enabling federal income tax; graduated tax structure.
Financial reform: Federal Reserve Act (1913) creating the Federal Reserve System with 12 regional banks and a central board; tools to regulate credit and money supply (interest rates, government bond operations, and Federal Reserve notes).
Antitrust and corporate regulation: Federal Trade Commission Act (1914); Clayton/Clean Antitrust approaches addressing holding companies and interlocking directorates; Keating-Owen Act (1916) limiting cross-state sales of goods made with child labor.
Social and labor reforms: workers’ compensation, minimum wage advocacy, child welfare protections, and expansion of women’s suffrage.
Foreign policy and empire-related actions:
Panama Canal: construction and control via Hay-Hay–Varilla treaty; strategic importance for US commerce and military reach; Panamanian independence supported by the US; canal opened in 1914; canal zone extended across 10 miles by 48 miles; permanent US presence until late 20th century.
Cuba: independence in 1902 with Platt Amendment granting the US intervention rights; later negotiations and relationships shaped by US policy in the Caribbean.
Monroe Doctrine and its expansion: US asserted leadership in Western Hemisphere; Roosevelt Corollary justified direct intervention in Latin America.
Open Door policy in China; Philippines as a strategic foothold in Asia; US influence in East Asia heightened during this era.
Russo-Japanese War: Roosevelt brokered peace at Portsmouth (1905), earning the Nobel Peace Prize; preserved open Door and balance of power in Asia.
Mansion of diplomacy under Wilson: missionary diplomacy aimed at spreading democracy and morality; challenges in Mexico and with European powers, especially during and after World War I.
Key timelines and numbers (quick reference)
Northern Securities et al.: 44 companies targeted; dissolution ordered by the Supreme Court.
Standard Oil breakup: division into smaller entities; market share previously over 90\% of US oil refining.
Meat and drug reforms: 1906 Meat Inspection Act; 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act.
Conservation: Roosevelt adds 200{,}000{,}000 acres to forest reserves; Pelican Island designated as a wildlife refuge (first of its kind).
Taft presidency: federal eight-hour workday for federal employees; push for safety standards; stronger trust-busting actions in some contexts.
1912 election: four-way race with Roosevelt (Bull Moose), Taft (Republican), Wilson (Democrat), Debs (Socialist); Debs near 1{,}000{,}000 votes.
Wilson reforms: Underwood Tariff; Sixteenth Amendment; Federal Reserve Act (1913); Federal Trade Commission Act (1914); Keating-Owen Act (1916).
Panama Canal: Hay-Hay–Varilla Treaty (1903); canal zone (10 miles wide, 48 miles long); (11-yr) construction; opened 1914; Panama independence supported by the US; settlement with Colombia in 1921 of 25{,}000{,}000.
Cuba: independence in 1902; Platt Amendment granting US intervention rights.
Monroe Doctrine and Corollary: expanding US influence in the Western Hemisphere; interventional stance in Latin America.
Pan-American and Far East geopolitics: Philippines as base; Open Door in China; balance of power diplomacy in the early 20th century.
Major political dynamics of 1912: Roosevelt’s third-party impact and Wilson’s victory; Debs’s notable vote share; historical notes on executive decision-making and party dynamics.