Chapter 2

1. Explain the difference between morality and ethics.

• Morality refers to personal beliefs about what is right and wrong, often influenced by cultural, religious, or personal values. Ethics, on the other hand, is a systematic approach to understanding, analyzing, and distinguishing matters of right and wrong, good and bad, as they relate to well-defined principles and rules. Ethics also only evaluates voluntary actions. 

2. Describe one similarity and one difference between subjective relativism and ethical egoism.

• Similarity: Both subjective relativism and ethical egoism focus on the individual as the primary determinant of moral actions.

• Difference: Subjective relativism holds that moral truths are based on individual preferences and beliefs, while ethical egoism asserts that actions are morally right if they promote the individual's self-interest.

3. Describe one similarity and one difference between rule utilitarianism and social contract theory.

• Similarity: Both rule utilitarianism and social contract theory emphasize rules and agreements that govern behavior to promote the well-being of society.

• Difference: Rule utilitarianism evaluates the morality of rules based on the consequences they produce, whereas social contract theory bases morality on the agreements made among individuals to form a society.

4. Describe one similarity and one difference between social contract theory and cultural relativism.

• Similarity: Both social contract theory and cultural relativism acknowledge the importance of societal norms and agreements in determining moral standards.

• Difference: Social contract theory is based on hypothetical agreements made to ensure mutual benefit and cooperation, while cultural relativism asserts that moral values are derived from and dependent on specific cultural contexts.

5. Describe one similarity and one difference between virtue ethics and Kantianism.

• Similarity: Both virtue ethics and Kantianism focus on the intention behind actions rather than solely on the consequences.

• Difference: Virtue ethics emphasizes the development of moral character and virtues, while Kantianism is based on adherence to categorical imperatives or universal moral laws.

6. Why is it inaccurate to say that utilitarianism means ``the most good for the most people''?

• This statement oversimplifies utilitarianism, which actually aims to maximize overall happiness or utility, not necessarily just for the majority but for everyone affected. It considers the net balance of pleasure over pain for all individuals.

7. Give two reasons why cultural relativism is an unworkable ethical theory.

• First, it implies that all cultural practices are equally valid, which can justify harmful practices like discrimination or oppression. Second, it makes moral progress impossible since no culture's values can be judged as better or worse than another's.

8. Give an example where Kantianism and rule utilitarianism disagree about the morality of an action. Explain why the action is ethical according to one theory but unethical according to the other.

Example: Telling a lie to save a life. Kantianism would consider lying inherently wrong regardless of the outcome, as it violates the categorical imperative to always tell the truth. Rule utilitarianism might find it ethical if a general rule permitting lies in life-saving situations produces more overall happiness.

9. Give an example where social contract theory and rule utilitarianism disagree about the morality of an action. Explain why the action is ethical according to one theory but unethical according to the other.

Example: Implementing a curfew for teenagers. Social contract theory might support it if it is part of a societal agreement for safety and order. Rule utilitarianism would evaluate it based on whether the curfew maximizes overall happiness, possibly finding it unethical if it restricts individual freedom without sufficient benefit.

10. Give an example where virtue ethics and act utilitarianism disagree about the morality of an action. Explain why the action is ethical according to one theory but unethical according to the other.

Example: Donating anonymously to charity. Virtue ethics might praise this act as demonstrating the virtue of generosity without seeking recognition. Act utilitarianism would consider it ethical only if the donation leads to the greatest overall happiness.

11. Explain Hobbes' argument for social contract theory.

Hobbes argued that in the state of nature, individuals would act in their self-interest, leading to a "war of all against all." To escape this chaos, people agree to form a society governed by rules and authority, thus entering a social contract to ensure peace and security.

12. Why does the second formulation of the categorical imperative follow from the first formulation?

The second formulation, which states that we should treat humanity as an end and never as a means, follows from the first formulation, which requires that we act only on maxims that can be universalized. Treating individuals as ends in themselves respects their intrinsic worth and aligns with maxims that could be universally applied.

13. Explain why governments often use utilitarian thinking to determine the proper course of action, and state a disadvantage of the utilitarian approach to decision-making.

Governments use utilitarian thinking to maximize overall social welfare and make decisions that benefit the majority. A disadvantage is that it can overlook the rights and well-being of minorities, leading to unjust outcomes for smaller groups.

14. Explain the difference between positive and negative rights. Give an example of each.

• Positive rights require others to provide you with a good or service (e.g., the right to education).

• Negative rights require others to abstain from interfering with your actions (e.g., the right to free speech).

15. Explain the difference between rule utilitarianism and act utilitarianism.

• Rule utilitarianism evaluates the morality of an action based on whether it conforms to rules that, if followed, would maximize happiness.

• Act utilitarianism assesses each individual action based on its specific consequences for overall happiness.

16. Does Divine Command Theory only apply to religious authorities?

No, Divine Command Theory posits that moral values are determined by God's commands, but it does not only apply to religious authorities. It applies to anyone who believes that moral obligations are derived from divine commands.

17. Why did John Rawls think that agreeing on shared principles of justice using a "veil of ignorance" would guarantee the best result?

Rawls argued that the "veil of ignorance" ensures impartiality by preventing individuals from knowing their social status, wealth, or personal characteristics. This would lead them to choose principles of justice that are fair and just for all, as they could end up in any position in society.

Chapter 3

1. Describe why spam has become so prevalent and give one reason why spam volumes have fallen over the past decade.

Spam has become prevalent due to its low cost and potential high return on investment for spammers. The ease of sending bulk emails to a large number of recipients increases the likelihood of reaching potential customers or victims. One reason spam volumes have fallen over the past decade is the improvement in spam filters and email security measures, which block and reduce the effectiveness of spam.

2. Give two examples of ways that networked communications have transformed society in developing countries.

Networked communications have enabled better access to education through online learning platforms and resources, bridging the educational gap in remote areas. They have also facilitated mobile banking and financial services, allowing people in rural areas to access banking services and financial inclusion.

3. Why is freedom of expression not an absolute right? Give one practical example to illustrate your argument.

Freedom of expression is not absolute because it can be limited to prevent harm to others, maintain public order, or protect national security. For example, laws against hate speech restrict freedom of expression to prevent incitement to violence or discrimination against marginalized groups.

4. State two of the main reasons why censorship of the Internet is difficult.

The decentralized nature of the Internet makes it challenging to control all content globally. Additionally, the use of encryption and anonymization tools by users can bypass censorship efforts and allow access to restricted information.

5. Give two qualitative differences between online bullying and in-person bullying. ✅

Online bullying can occur anonymously, making it harder to identify and hold the bully accountable. It can also reach a wider audience quickly, leading to more significant and prolonged emotional harm for the victim.

6. Explain how Mill's Principle of Harm can be applied to the moral issue of pornography on the Web. ✅

Mill's Principle of Harm states that individuals should be free to act unless their actions harm others. Applied to pornography, this principle suggests that it should be permitted as long as it does not cause direct harm to others, such as exploitation or non-consensual distribution.

7. Describe two high-tech forms of identity theft and two low-tech forms.

High-tech forms: Phishing attacks, where fraudulent emails trick individuals into providing personal information, and data breaches, where hackers steal large volumes of personal data from companies. Low-tech forms: Stealing mail to obtain personal information or dumpster diving to retrieve discarded documents with sensitive information.

8. Describe two ways in which the interaction between current laws and the practice of sexting has had unintended consequences.

Minors who engage in consensual sexting can be prosecuted under child pornography laws, leading to severe legal consequences. Additionally, the criminalization of sexting can deter victims of non-consensual sharing from reporting the crime due to fear of legal repercussions.

Due to the strict child pornography laws intended to protect children could lead to legal consequences despite being consensual if either the sender or receiver is a minor as it’s illegal to send sexual photos/videos of anyone who is, or appears to be, under 18. In the two scenarios which were explored in class were the cases of the 18 year old man who sent images to his 16 year old girlfriend. He was sentenced to 5 years as well as registered as a sex offender. 

Second case is the case of the principal who had topless pictures on his computer after confiscating it from the student body who was dismissed as it is illegal to store images of minors and was charged for Possession.

9. Describe a reason why a person or an institution may decide to censor itself.

To avoid legal liabilities or negative public backlash. For example, a company might self-censor controversial advertising to prevent damage to its brand reputation.

10. Cass Sustein, an American legal scholar, feared that information technology could weaken democracy because people would choose to only read news that confirm their opinion. In what way does the news feed produced by Facebook or Twitter differ from this prediction?

Facebook and Twitter use algorithms to curate content based on user preferences and engagement, often creating echo chambers where users are predominantly exposed to information that confirms their existing beliefs, aligning with Sunstein's concern.

Chapter 4

1. Briefly outline Locke's theory of a natural right to property.

Locke's theory posits that individuals have a natural right to property derived from their labor. When a person mixes their labor with resources from nature, they establish ownership over the resulting product.

2. Give two reasons why Locke's theory of a natural right to property does not translate to intellectual property.

Intellectual property often involves ideas and creations that can be infinitely shared without depletion, unlike physical property. Also, intellectual property rights require legal frameworks and enforcement, which are not inherent in Locke's natural rights.

3. Name three ways that an individual or firm may protect intellectual property. Briefly describe the form of protection offered by one.

Patents, copyrights, and trademarks. Patents provide exclusive rights to inventors to use, sell, and license their inventions for a certain period, typically 20 years, in exchange for public disclosure of the invention.

4. Describe two kinds of intellectual property protection that still apply to open-source software.

Copyrights protect the original code written by developers, and trademarks can protect the branding and logos associated with the open-source software.

5. Why do patents and copyrights have limited terms?

To balance the interests of creators and the public by providing incentives for innovation while eventually allowing public access to the intellectual property, fostering further innovation and cultural development.

6. Why are the legal protections for trade secrets more limited than other forms of intellectual property rights?

Trade secrets rely on the secrecy maintained by the holder rather than formal registration, making them vulnerable to reverse engineering, independent discovery, or unauthorized disclosure without specific legal remedies.

7. What are fair use and fair dealing? Describe one important difference.

Fair use (U.S.) and fair dealing (Commonwealth countries) are legal doctrines that allow limited use of copyrighted material without permission for purposes like criticism, comment, news reporting, education, and research.

One key difference is that fair use is more flexible and case-by-case, while fair dealing is more narrowly defined and specific to certain purposes. Such as with fair dealing, the court will take into account if there were non-copyrighted alternatives available which could be used instead. 

8. What is the cleanroom software development strategy and why is it used?

Cleanroom software development involves creating software in a controlled environment where developers have no access to proprietary code, ensuring that the resulting software does not infringe on intellectual property rights. It is used to prevent copyright violations and legal disputes.

9. How might piracy of Microsoft's products ultimately have benefited Microsoft?

Piracy can lead to widespread use and familiarity with Microsoft's products, potentially increasing legitimate sales and market dominance as users and businesses adopt the software officially over time.

10. Why would an artist choose to license their creation under Creative Commons, and what kind of control can they exert on how it is used?

An artist might choose Creative Commons to promote sharing and collaboration while retaining certain rights. They can specify how their work can be used, such as allowing non-commercial use, requiring attribution, or permitting derivative works under similar terms.

Chapter 5

1. Define privacy. Briefly argue (in no more than two sentences) why you favour this definition.

Privacy is the right to control access to one's personal information and to be free from unwarranted intrusion. This definition emphasizes both the individual's autonomy over their data and the need to protect against invasive actions, capturing the essence of privacy in a digital age.

2. What does it mean to say that privacy is a prudential right?

Saying privacy is a prudential right means it is a right that individuals recognize as important for their own self-interest and well-being, encouraging behavior that protects personal information and autonomy.

3. Describe one privacy consequence of having an opt-out rather than an opt-in policy.

An opt-out policy often results in more people inadvertently sharing their information because they might not be aware of the need to take action to protect their privacy, leading to greater exposure of personal data.

4. Describe two modern information technology devices and how they may be used to decrease privacy.

• Smartphones can track location data and collect personal information through apps, which can be shared with third parties.

• Smart home devices, like smart speakers, can record conversations and monitor activities within a home, potentially sending data to external servers.

5. Modern information technology allows a great deal of information to be collected, stored, searched, and rapidly retrieved. Give an example of how this capability benefits society and an example of how it harms society.

• Benefits: Medical databases allow for rapid sharing of patient information, improving healthcare outcomes.

• Harms: Mass surveillance programs can invade individuals' privacy, leading to potential abuses of power and loss of personal freedom.

6. List three benefits of privacy.

• Protects personal autonomy and freedom.

• Safeguards against identity theft and fraud.

• Preserves confidentiality in personal and professional relationships.

7. List three harmful consequences of privacy.

• Facilitates hiding of illegal activities.

• Can hinder law enforcement and public safety efforts.

• Limits accountability in cases of misconduct or malpractice.

8. What is a "zone of inaccessibility"?

A "zone of inaccessibility" is a concept where individuals have a private space or domain that others cannot intrude upon, ensuring personal privacy and autonomy.

9. What is data mining? Describe two ways in which it can be detrimental to privacy.

Data mining is the process of analyzing large datasets to discover patterns, trends, and useful information. It can be detrimental to privacy by revealing sensitive personal information without consent and by enabling profiling and discriminatory practices based on analyzed data.

10. How can Web cookies be detrimental to privacy?

Web cookies can track users' online activities without their explicit consent, collecting data on browsing habits, preferences, and personal information, which can then be used for targeted advertising or sold to third parties.

11. List three instances in which individuals in Canada benefit from rules that limit their privacy, and in each case state one such benefit.

• Health records: Ensuring accurate and complete medical history for better treatment.

• Financial transactions: Preventing fraud and money laundering through regulatory oversight.

• Law enforcement: Enhanced public safety through surveillance and monitoring of criminal activities.

12. List three ways in which an individual can benefit from voluntarily disclosing his/her own private information.

• Access to personalized services and recommendations.

• Building trust in professional and personal relationships.

• Gaining social recognition and support by sharing personal achievements or challenges.

13. What is a website (computer) cookie, and what is its primary goal?

A website cookie is a small piece of data stored on a user's device by a web browser while browsing a website. Its primary goal is to remember user preferences and login information to enhance the user experience on subsequent visits.

Chapter 6

1. Give two arguments against warrantless wiretapping.

It infringes on individuals' right to privacy and can lead to unwarranted surveillance and abuse of power. It undermines the principle of checks and balances in the justice system, bypassing judicial oversight.

2. Briefly explain the ideas behind public-key cryptography.

Public-key cryptography involves a pair of keys: a public key, which is shared openly, and a private key, which is kept secret. Data encrypted with the public key can only be decrypted with the corresponding private key, ensuring secure communication and authentication.

3. List and briefly define each of the categories in Solove's taxonomy of privacy related activities.

• Information Collection: Activities involving the gathering of personal data (e.g., surveillance, interrogation).

• Information Processing: Activities involving the use, storage, and manipulation of collected data (e.g., aggregation, identification).

• Information Dissemination: Activities involving the distribution of personal data (e.g., breach of confidentiality, disclosure).

• Invasion: Activities that intrude upon personal spaces and affect individual solitude (e.g., intrusion, decisional interference).

4. Give three examples of situations in which inaccurate information in a database can have serious repercussions.

• Incorrect criminal records leading to wrongful arrests or job denials.

• Misdiagnosis due to erroneous medical records, affecting treatment and health outcomes.

• Financial inaccuracies causing denied credit applications or unwarranted debt collections.

5. Why are privacy issues concerning children often treated differently from those concerning adults?

Children are considered more vulnerable and less capable of understanding and consenting to data collection practices, necessitating stronger protections to safeguard their privacy and well-being.

6. List three ways that unified crime databases can lead to privacy violations.

• Unauthorized access and misuse of personal data by insiders.

• Data breaches exposing sensitive information to criminals.

• Profiling and surveillance of individuals without proper oversight.

7. The REAL ID act requires states in the U.S. to issue new driving licenses with a set of standard, machine-readable data. Describe one advantage and one risk associated with the use of these new IDs.

• Advantage: Enhanced security and consistency in identification, facilitating easier verification and travel.

• Risk: Increased potential for identity theft and misuse if the centralized database is compromised.

Chapter 7

1. Describe a popular culture portrayal of hacking that you found realistic, and explain why.

The portrayal of hacking in the TV show "Mr. Robot" is often considered realistic because it accurately depicts techniques like social engineering, exploiting software vulnerabilities, and using open-source tools commonly used by real-world hackers.

2. Firesheep is a Firefox extension that makes it easy for an average user to hijack sessions. Explain what session hijacking is. What was the author's moral justification for releasing Firesheep to the public?

Session hijacking involves intercepting and taking over a user's web session by capturing the session cookie. The author justified releasing Firesheep to raise awareness about the insecurity of HTTP sessions and to push websites to adopt secure protocols like HTTPS.

3. How does mining work in BitCoin?

Bitcoin mining involves using computational power to solve complex mathematical problems that validate and secure transactions on the blockchain. Successful miners are rewarded with newly created bitcoins and transaction fees.

4. What is malware? Describe four different kinds of malware, using at most one sentence each.

Malware is malicious software designed to harm, exploit, or otherwise compromise a computer system.

• Virus: A program that attaches itself to files and spreads to other files and systems.

• Worm: A standalone program that replicates itself to spread to other computers without needing to attach to files.

• Trojan: A program disguised as legitimate software that, once installed, executes malicious activities.

• Ransomware: Software that encrypts a user's data and demands payment for the decryption key.

5. What is a botnet? Describe two ways that botnets are used.

A botnet is a network of compromised computers controlled by a central entity to perform coordinated tasks.

• Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks: Overloading a target server with traffic to make it unavailable.

• Spam distribution: Using compromised computers to send large volumes of spam emails.

6. Provide one benefit and one risk associated with online voting.

• Benefit: Increased accessibility and convenience for voters, potentially increasing voter turnout.

• Risk: Vulnerability to hacking and manipulation, which could compromise the integrity of the election results.

7. Give one moral similarity and one moral difference between hacking into a computer system and distributing MP3 files over a peer-to-peer network.

• Similarity: Both involve unauthorized use of digital resources, potentially violating intellectual property rights.

• Difference: Hacking into a computer system often involves breaching security and privacy, while distributing MP3 files primarily infringes on copyright laws without necessarily compromising security.

8. Explain one similarity and one difference between computer viruses and computer worms.

• Similarity: Both are types of malware that can replicate and spread to other systems.

• Difference: Viruses require a host file to spread, whereas worms are standalone programs that spread independently.

9. Describe one similarity and one difference between online voting and absentee voting by mail.

• Similarity: Both provide alternatives to in-person voting, offering convenience to voters who cannot or prefer not to vote at polling stations.

• Difference: Online voting involves electronic submission, which is susceptible to cyber threats, while absentee voting by mail relies on physical ballots, which face risks like loss or tampering in transit.

10. Explain the difference between phishing and spear phishing.

Phishing involves sending fraudulent messages to a large number of recipients, aiming to steal personal information. Spear phishing targets specific individuals or organizations with personalized messages, making the deception more convincing.

Chapter 8

1. Give one argument supporting and one opposing the adoption of direct recording electronic voting machines.

• Supporting: They can streamline the voting process, reduce errors, and provide quicker results.

• Opposing: They are susceptible to hacking and technical failures, which could undermine the integrity of the election results.

2. Why is it usually difficult to assign moral responsibility for computer system failures to a particular individual? State two implications for organizations that create critical systems.

Difficulty arises due to the complex and collaborative nature of software development, where many individuals contribute to different parts of the system. Implications include the need for comprehensive testing and documentation processes and the importance of establishing clear accountability and oversight mechanisms within the organization.

3. Describe two different ways of validating a computer simulation.

• Comparison with real-world data: Ensuring the simulation's output matches empirical observations.

• Peer review: Having experts evaluate the simulation's methodology, assumptions, and results for accuracy and credibility.

4. SAE international describes 7 levels of vehicle automation. Why are some car manufacturers opting to not release cars with a level 3 automation?

Level 3 automation requires the driver to take over when the system requests, which can lead to safety concerns if the driver is not paying attention or ready to respond promptly. Some manufacturers prefer to avoid these risks by focusing on lower levels of automation or advancing directly to higher levels where the system is more reliable.

5. What is gender bias in technology? Describe one way in which it can be reduced.

Gender bias in technology refers to the tendency for technology design, development, and implementation to favor one gender over another, often resulting in products that do not adequately serve or represent all users. It can be reduced by promoting diversity in development teams and incorporating gender-inclusive research and testing practices.

Chapter 9

1. What is whistleblowing? List one harm and one benefit that it provides.

Whistleblowing is the act of exposing unethical, illegal, or unsafe practices within an organization to external parties.

• Harm: It can lead to retaliation against the whistleblower, including job loss and personal harassment.

• Benefit: It can bring necessary attention to harmful practices and lead to corrective actions that benefit society.

2. Describe a situation in which it is morally necessary to make private information about your employer public, and a situation in which it is morally wrong.

• Morally necessary: Revealing evidence of the company dumping toxic waste into a local water supply, which endangers public health.

• Morally wrong: Disclosing proprietary information about a new product to a competitor out of personal vendetta, harming the company and its employees.

3. Sometimes two rules in the Software Engineering Code of Ethics may conflict. Identify two questions we could ask in such a case to better consider the principles underlying the rules.

• Which rule best promotes the public good and protects the public interest?

• Which rule more strongly upholds the integrity and reputation of the profession?

4. List four components of a mature professional infrastructure.

• Professional associations that set standards and guidelines.

• A code of ethics that governs professional conduct.

• Certification and licensing processes to ensure competency.

• Continuing education and professional development opportunities.

5. List one way in which computer-related careers are different from mature professions. List one way in which they are similar.

• Different: Computer-related careers often lack standardized certification and licensing requirements compared to mature professions like medicine or law.

• Similar: Both require a strong commitment to ongoing learning and adaptation to new developments in the field.

Chapter 10

1. Describe a popular culture portrayal of artificial intelligence that you found realistic, and explain why.

The portrayal of AI in the movie "Her" is realistic because it depicts an AI that evolves through learning from interactions with humans, adapting its behavior, and developing complex relationships, which aligns with current advancements in machine learning and natural language processing.

2. Give an example of how information technology has influenced the way manufacturing and service companies (a. organize themselves, b. create products, and c. interact with other companies).

• (a) Organize themselves: Use of ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) systems to streamline operations and improve coordination.

• (b) Create products: Adoption of CAD (Computer-Aided Design) software to enhance product design and reduce development time.

• (c) Interact with other companies: Implementation of EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) for efficient and accurate exchange of business documents.

3. Define the term "globalization". Give an example of how advances in information technology have stimulated globalization.

Globalization is the process of increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of the world's markets and businesses. Advances in information technology, such as the Internet and communication technologies, have stimulated globalization by enabling instantaneous communication and collaboration across the globe, allowing companies to operate and compete internationally.

4. What is "the digital divide"? Name and describe the two fundamentally different dimensions of the digital divide.

The digital divide refers to the gap between those who have access to modern information and communication technology and those who do not.

• Access Divide: The disparity in physical access to technology and the Internet.

• Usage Divide: The difference in the ability to use technology effectively, often influenced by education and digital literacy.

5. Give two reasons why it may not be helpful to be concerned about the ``digital divide'' between rich and poor countries.

• Technological leapfrogging can allow developing countries to adopt the latest technologies without going through all the intermediate stages, potentially narrowing the gap quickly.

• Economic and infrastructural priorities might differ, and focusing solely on the digital divide may overlook other critical needs such as healthcare, education, and basic infrastructure.

6. Proponents of automation claim that it creates new jobs. Sketch this argument.

Automation increases productivity and lowers costs, which can lead to economic growth and higher demand for goods and services. This growth can create new jobs in areas such as technology development, maintenance, and oversight of automated systems, as well as in sectors that benefit from increased productivity.

7. Why is the winner-take-all phenomenon more likely to occur in the case of law schools than in the case of restaurants? That is, why do a few top law schools in the country to get almost all of the rewards/prestige/etc., when this is not the situation with the top few restaurants in the country?

The legal profession highly values the prestige and network associated with top law schools, which leads to disproportionate rewards for graduates from these institutions. In contrast, the restaurant industry is more localized, with a diverse range of culinary preferences and experiences, leading to a more distributed recognition of excellence.