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Comprehensive Exam Notes – Digital Literacy & Computing

Search Strategies

  • Effectiveness of a search
    • A search is effective when it returns information that directly answers your question, is from reliable sources, and requires minimal effort to sift through irrelevant results.
    • Indicators: high relevance ratio, credible authorship, timeliness.

  • Efficiency of a search
    • Efficiency = accomplishing the same task in less time/fewer queries.
    • Techniques: advanced operators, filters, quoted phrases, Boolean logic, narrowing by date or format, and using domain‐restricted searches.

  • “Strategy” defined
    • A deliberate, step-by-step plan to achieve a goal.
    • Example: “Use three specific keywords, enclose a phrase in quotes, add site:edu to limit results, then evaluate top 5 hits.”

  • Multiple descriptive keywords
    • Each extra keyword acts like an AND filter—results must contain all terms → smaller, more focused set.

  • Synonyms
    • Increases recall: catches pages that phrase the idea differently.
    • Use OR operator or parentheses: (teen OR adolescent).

  • Quotation marks
    • Forces an exact‐phrase match.
    • Great for song lyrics, full names, titles.

  • Minus sign (-)
    • Excludes a term: jaguar -car keeps the animal, drops the automobile.

  • OR operator
    • Broadens search to either term: college OR university; can double result set.

  • Restricting by domain
    • site:.gov for government publications, site:.edu for academic papers.
    • Helps vet credibility quickly.

  • Restricting by filetype/format
    • filetype:pdf, images, videos, etc.
    • Surfaces the medium you need (slides, infographics, etc.).

  • Advanced search page
    • GUI that wraps all operators: language, region, last-update, SafeSearch, reading level.

  • Step-wise search plan

    1. Define need (topic, scope, purpose).
    2. Choose keywords & synonyms.
    3. Run basic query; scan results.
    4. Refine with operators/filters.
    5. Evaluate credibility.
    6. Capture citations.

URLs

  • URI vs. URL
    • URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) = any string that identifies a resource.
    • URL (Uniform Resource Locator) = subclass that locates via scheme + path.

  • URL components
    • Scheme (protocol)
    • Host (subdomain + domain + TLD)
    • Port (optional)
    • Path
    • Query string (after ? )
    • Fragment (after # ).

  • Delimiters
    • :// after scheme, : before port, / between folders, ? opens query, & joins parameters, # opens fragment.

  • Three parts of host
    • Subdomain, second-level domain (SLD), top-level domain (TLD).

  • Purpose of subdomain
    • Organize services (e.g., mail.google.com).

  • TLD definition + examples
    • Highest level of DNS hierarchy: .com, .org, .net, .gov, .edu, country codes .uk, .de.

  • Common TLDs by sector
    • Business: .com, .biz
    • Government: .gov
    • School: .edu
    • Non-profit: .org.

  • Other TLDs
    • .io, .xyz, .app, .museum, etc.

  • Case sensitivity
    • Scheme & host = not case sensitive.
    • Path, query, fragment may be case sensitive depending on server OS.

MLA & Source Evaluation

  • Importance of evaluating internet sources
    • No editorial gatekeepers; misinformation spreads easily → credibility check is essential.

  • Library vs. Internet reliability
    • University library collections are pre-vetted by librarians and peer review; internet is open-posting.

  • Astroturfing
    • Fake grassroots movement created by organizations to sway opinion. E.g., paid reviews.

  • Sponsored content & native ads
    • Paid articles designed to match site look.
    • Increases click-through; BuzzFeed listicles for brands are famous examples.

  • Conflict of interest
    • When one’s obligation to be objective conflicts with financial/personal gain.
    • Example: scientist paid by tobacco industry to publish favorable study.

  • Next-level site vetting
    • Check WHOIS, look for HTTPS, cross-verify author credentials, use fact-checking sites.

  • Why cite
    • Give credit, avoid plagiarism, let readers verify, strengthen argument.

  • In-text citation content
    • Author’s last name + page number.

  • MLA in-text format
    • (...) at sentence end: (Smith 42).

  • Author mention
    • Signal phrase in sentence → only page in parentheses: Smith argues ... (42).

  • Page numbers
    • Include when source is paginated (books, PDFs).

  • Direct quote
    • Put quote in quotation marks, then (Smith 42).

  • Paraphrase
    • Restate ideas, still cite: (Smith 42) or “According to Smith …”.

  • Works Cited vs. in-text
    • In-text = brief pointer; Works Cited = full bibliographic info.

  • Hanging indent
    • First line flush left, subsequent lines indented 0.5\text{ in}.

  • MLA citation page rules
    • Alphabetical by author, double-spaced, 1" margins, header “Works Cited.”

  • Website citation parts
    • Author. Title of page. Site, Publisher, Date, URL, Accessed date.

Email Fundamentals

  • Email etiquette
    • Use professional address, concise subject, respectful tone, proofread, timely reply.

  • Email address parts
    • Local part, @ symbol, domain part.

  • Subject line
    • Specific, 5–8 words, include action or topic: “Draft v2 needed by Fri.”

  • Structure

    1. Greeting 2. Purpose/context 3. Details 4. Call-to-action 5. Closing/signature.

  • CC vs. BCC
    • CC = visible copy; BCC = hidden recipients. Use BCC for privacy/mailing lists.

  • Reply vs. Forward
    • Reply sends to sender (or all); Forward relays entire thread to new party.

  • Attachments
    • Files appended; mention in body, keep size reasonable (<10 MB) or use cloud link.

  • Signature
    • Auto footer: name, title, org, phone, optional pronouns.

  • Tone
    • Choose level of formality; avoid sarcasm; reread when emotional—24-hour rule before sending.

  • Inbox management
    • Folders/labels, filters, archive vs. delete, zero-inbox, scheduled blocks to check.

Copyright & Creative Commons

  • Purpose
    • Grants creators exclusive rights to reproduce, distribute, perform, display, and create derivatives.

  • Using others’ work
    • Obtain permission, use licensed content, or comply with fair use.

  • Piracy
    • Unauthorized copying/distribution for free or profit.

  • Plagiarism
    • Presenting another’s ideas/words as your own without credit.

  • Public domain vs. fair use
    • Public domain = no rights reserved (expired or waived).
    • Fair use = limited, transformative use under 17\,U.S.C.\,§107.

  • Creative Commons (CC) four conditions
    • Attribution (BY)
    • ShareAlike (SA)
    • NonCommercial (NC)
    • NoDerivatives (ND).

  • CC vs. copyright
    • CC is a layer on top of copyright granting upfront permissions.

  • Piracy vs. fair use
    • Piracy infringes; fair use balances societal benefit.

  • Credit importance
    • Ethical, legal, academic integrity.

Fair Use & Transformative Works

  • Rework
    • Altering a work’s format or medium (scanning, subtitling).

  • Remix/Mashup
    • Combining pieces from multiple works into new whole (music mashups).

  • Parody
    • Imitative work that ridicules original to comment or critique.

  • Two ways to use without permission
    • Public domain, Fair use.

  • Free-image sites
    • Unsplash, Pixabay, Wikimedia Commons CC.

  • Paraphrase + citation & fair use
    • Still may need permission if substantial portion; but generally considered fair use for scholarship.

  • Fair-use examples
    • School project slide w/ short quote, news clip of disaster photo, critical review screenshot, SNL parody.

  • Four fair-use factors

    1. Purpose & character (transformative? commercial?)
    2. Nature of original
    3. Amount/substantiality used
    4. Effect on market.

  • PANE mnemonic
    • Purpose, Amount, Nature, Effect.

Cyberbullying

  • Bystander vs. Upstander
    • Bystander observes; Upstander intervenes/supports target.

  • Empathy
    • Ability to share and understand another’s feelings.

  • Upstander actions

    1. Report/block
    2. Reach out to victim privately
    3. Post positive support
    4. Collect evidence.

  • Harassing
    • Repeated, aggressive messages intending harm.

  • Flaming
    • Online insults in hostile environment like forums.

  • Five cyberbullying methods
    • Doxxing, impersonation, exclusion, trolling, cyberstalking.

Scams & Schemes

  • Ultimate purpose
    • Financial gain or identity theft.

  • Data sought
    • SSN, bank logins, DOB, answers to security questions.

  • Teen vulnerability
    • Oversharing, thin credit files, lack of vigilance.

  • Phishing
    • Fraudulent messages posing as legit entity to steal info.

  • Red flags
    • Urgency, generic greeting, mismatched URLs, typos, attachments.

  • What to do
    • Do not click, verify sender, report, delete.

  • Vulnerable defined
    • Susceptible to harm or exploitation.

  • Identity theft
    • Stealing personal info to impersonate and commit fraud.

  • Scammer tricks
    • Pretexting, bait links, fake prizes, emotional manipulation.

  • Consequences of ID theft
    • Lower credit score → loan denials, higher interest.

  • Common financial info targets
    • Credit card numbers, bank account routing, CVV, PIN.

Malware Taxonomy

  • Self-spreading without human action → Worm.

  • Dormant code via attachment that seizes apps → Virus.

  • Replicates via network shares/removable media → Macro/Script Virus (still a virus but sometimes called file-infector).

  • Disguised as legit app → Trojan horse.

  • Encrypts files for ransom → Ransomware.

  • Remote-controlled attack program → Bot / Botnet client.

  • Displays unwanted ads → Adware.

  • Steals info silently → Spyware.

  • Hides itself → Rootkit.

  • Malvertising → delivering malware via fake ads.

Computer Basics

  • Computer definition
    • Electronic device that can \text{input} \rightarrow \text{process} \rightarrow \text{store} \rightarrow \text{output} data.

  • Common uses
    • Web browsing, documents, email, games.

  • Advanced tasks
    • 3D rendering, big-data analytics, AI model training.

  • Input function
    • Accept data via keyboard, sensors.

  • Output function
    • Deliver info via monitor, speakers, printers.

  • Four basic functions

    1. Input 2. Processing 3. Storage 4. Output.

  • Basic parts
    • Case, motherboard, CPU, RAM, storage, PSU, peripherals.

  • Computer case
    • Enclosure; tower, mini-tower, SFF, laptop chassis.

  • Monitor & resolutions
    • 1920×1080 (1080p), 2560×1440 (1440p), 3840×2160 (4K).

  • Monitor tech
    • LCD, LED backlit, OLED.

  • Connection types
    • HDMI, DisplayPort, DVI, VGA, USB-C.

  • Keyboard layout
    • QWERTY most common.

  • Mouse types
    • Optical, laser, trackball, touch.

Ports, Peripherals & Inside Components

  • Common ports
    • USB-A/C, Ethernet (RJ-45), 3.5 mm audio, HDMI, DisplayPort, Thunderbolt, power.

  • Peripherals
    • External devices that add input/output/storage; connect via USB, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi.

  • Examples
    • Input: scanner, gamepad; Output: printer, projector; I/O: external HDD, touchscreen.

  • Motherboard
    • Main PCB; hosts CPU socket, RAM slots, chipset, expansion buses.

  • CPU
    • Executes instructions; silicon die ~20\text{–}600\text{ mm}^2 located under heatsink. Speed measured in \text{GHz}.

  • RAM function
    • Volatile workspace for active programs.

  • More RAM → ability to run more apps smoothly.

  • HDD vs. SSD
    • HDD = spinning platters; SSD = flash. SSD faster, shock-resistant.

  • Drive speed effects
    • Faster read/write reduces boot & load times.

  • PSU
    • Converts AC → regulated DC; includes over-current and thermal cut-off.

  • Video card
    • Renders graphics; integrated (iGPU) shares system RAM, dedicated has own VRAM. Dedicated benefits: higher FPS, GPU compute.

Software Categories

  • Software
    • Programs/instructions vs. hardware = physical parts.

  • Examples
    • OS, apps, games, drivers.

  • BIOS
    • Low-level firmware that initializes hardware on boot.

  • Operating systems
    • Windows, macOS, Linux.

  • OS responsibilities
    • Manage hardware, files, users, security, multitasking.

  • Application software
    • Word processors, browsers. Open-source ≠ closed-source licensing.

  • System software
    • OS, device drivers, utilities.

  • Device drivers
    • Translate OS commands to hardware.

  • Utility software
    • Antivirus, backup tools.

  • Firmware
    • Embedded code in ROM; controls routers, appliances.

  • Web-based software
    • Google Docs, Salesforce; advantages: accessibility, no installs.

  • Embedded software
    • Runs in IoT devices, cars, microwaves.

Operating System Details

  • Main function
    • Bridge between hardware and user apps.

  • Memory/storage mgmt
    • Paging, segmentation, virtual memory, disk quotas.

  • Popular OSes & features
    • Windows (broad hardware support), macOS (tight integration), Linux (open-source, customizable).

  • GUI purpose
    • User-friendly visual interaction vs. CLI.

  • Computer without OS?
    • Only runs fixed firmware or single-purpose embedded code.

  • Process mgmt
    • Scheduling, context switching, deadlock handling.

  • I/O control
    • Unified driver model, interrupts.

  • Security features
    • User accounts, ACLs, encryption, firewalls.

  • File mgmt
    • Hierarchical directories, permissions.

  • Network mgmt
    • TCP/IP stack, Wi-Fi config.

  • Device drivers role
    • Abstraction layer for hardware.

  • Resource mgmt
    • Print spooler, scanner queue.

  • Power mgmt
    • Sleep, hibernate, battery profiles.

  • BIOS role
    • POST, hand-off to bootloader.

  • Firmware role
    • Persistent low-level control of components (e.g., UEFI firmware updates).

Open Source vs. Closed Source

  • Definitions
    • Open-source: source code available, modifiable.
    • Closed-source: proprietary, no code access.

  • Examples
    • Open: Firefox, Linux. Closed: Microsoft Office.

  • Pros open
    • Free, customizable, transparent security, community support.

  • Cons open
    • Steep learning curve, fragmented, limited official support.

  • Pros closed
    • Polished UI, dedicated support, strong integration.

  • Cons closed
    • Costly licenses, less flexibility, vendor lock-in.

  • Decision factors
    • Budget, security policy, required features, support needs, licensing ethics.

  • Why closed more polished
    • Centralized design teams, UX testing budgets.

  • Dedicated support benefits
    • SLA guarantees, patch cadence.

  • Expense & restriction reasons
    • R&D cost recovery, IP protection.

  • Open adaptability
    • Forking, plugins.

  • Transparency importance
    • Anyone can audit code for backdoors.

Impact of the Internet

  • Protocols/standards
    • TCP/IP, HTTP, SMTP, DNS; agreed upon by IETF, W3C.

  • Communication impact
    • Instant messaging – WhatsApp voice call across continents.

  • Distributed computing / SaaS
    • Folding@home, Google Docs collaborative editing.

  • E-commerce
    • Amazon enables global marketplace.

  • Information access
    • Wikipedia free encyclopedia.

  • Online learning
    • MOOCs (Coursera) provide courses worldwide.

  • Entertainment
    • Netflix streaming on-demand.

  • GPS integration
    • Real-time traffic via Google Maps.

  • Downsides
    • Addiction, misinformation, cybercrime.

  • Privacy/security importance
    • Data breaches can expose PII; encryption & strong passwords essential.

Addressing

  • IP address function
    • Numeric label that identifies device & location in network layer.

  • Internet Protocol (IP)
    • Packet routing protocol in \text{TCP/IP} suite.

  • IPv4 vs. IPv6
    • IPv4 = 32\text{-bit}, 2^{32} \approx 4.3\times10^9 addresses.
    • IPv6 = 128\text{-bit}, 2^{128} ≈ astronomical.

  • Standards body
    • Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

  • IPv6 example
    • 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334.

  • IETF purpose
    • Develop & publish RFCs that define protocols.

  • IP → binary conversion
    • Split decimal octets, convert each to 8\text{-bit} binary: 192.168.1.1 → 11000000 10101000 00000001 00000001.

Internet Hardware & Transmission

  • Internet definition
    • Global interconnection of networks using TCP/IP.

  • Wired vs. wireless
    • Wired (Ethernet/fiber) = stable, fast; wireless (Wi-Fi/cellular) = mobility.

  • Reliable topology
    • Mesh → redundancy; if one link fails, data reroutes.

  • Transmission methods
    • Unicast (one-to-one), Multicast (one-to-many select), Broadcast (one-to-all). Pros/cons: bandwidth efficiency vs. scope.

  • Bandwidth vs. bitrate vs. latency
    • Bandwidth = capacity \text{Hz} or \text{bps}; bitrate = current transfer \text{bps}; latency = delay \text{ms}. High bandwidth enables high bitrate; latency independent.

  • Ethernet vs. fiber
    • Ethernet copper twisted-pair up to 1 Gbps over 100 m; fiber optic up to Tbps miles; use fiber for backbone, Ethernet for LAN.

DNS

  • DNS purpose
    • Translates human-readable domain → IP address.

  • Resolution process
    • Recursive resolver → root server → TLD server → authoritative host server.

  • Role of root server
    • Points to TLD name servers; 13 logical clusters.

  • Cache
    • Stores recent lookups to speed future queries (TTL).

  • TLD server role
    • Holds records for domains under a TLD, e.g., .com.

  • Domain vs. IP
    • Domain = alias; IP = numeric address computers use.

  • Host server role
    • Authoritative record for specific domain.

Routing & Redundancy

  • Directing packets
    • Routing = selecting paths for traffic.

  • Internet data flow
    • Broken into packets, each routed independently.

  • Router function
    • Forward packets based on IP tables.

  • Path metrics
    • Hop count, bandwidth, congestion.

  • Multiple paths → improved reliability & scalability.

  • Fault-tolerant
    • System continues despite failures.

  • Redundancy
    • Extra routers/links to avoid single points of failure.

Packets & Protocols

  • Packet
    • Structured chunk of data with header (metadata) + payload.

  • Metadata purpose
    • Source/destination IP, sequence, TTL.

  • Standardized layout
    • IP protocol defines header fields.

  • TCP role
    • Reliable stream, sequencing, retransmission.

  • HTTP role
    • Application-level protocol for web resource requests.

  • Accessing webpage steps

    1. Enter URL. 2. DNS lookup. 3. TCP 3-way handshake. 4. HTTP GET. 5. Server responds. 6. Browser renders.

  • Protocols working together
    • DNS gets IP; IP routes; TCP ensures delivery; HTTP carries content.