The Age of the City

Immigration and Migration

  • Movement in the U.S. (19th Century)

    • Significant movement of people, particularly from rural areas to industrial cities
    • Includes African Americans seeking better opportunities
    • Many also moved west for land

  • Population Growth in Cities

    • Major cities saw growth due to an influx of immigrants
    • Approximately 25 million immigrants arrived in the late 19th century
    • New immigrants came from diverse regions and often filled lower-paid jobs, causing tensions with established "old" immigrant populations

  • Push Factors for Immigration

    • Poverty
    • Religious persecution
    • Political oppression

  • Pull Factors for Immigration

    • Freedom and better economic opportunities

  • Specific Immigration Policies

    • Angel Island: Processed Asian immigration; notably denied Chinese immigrants unless they proved citizenship or had family in the U.S. after 1882.
    • Ellis Island: Main entry point for many immigrants, processing health and desirability.

Assimilation and Nativism

  • Impact of Immigration

    • By 1890, immigrants made up a substantial portion of major city populations
    • Formation of neighborhoods called "immigrant ghettos"; e.g., Little Italy, Chinatown

  • Rise of Nativism and Discrimination

    • Flourishing nativism leading to discrimination against immigrant groups
    • Chinese Exclusion Act (1882): Restricted immigration by race, leading to further legislations like the Scott Act and Geary Act.
    • Immigrant Protect League (1894): Advocated for immigrant screening through literacy and medical tests.

Working Conditions

  • Industry and Labor

    • Provided low-wage jobs often under poor conditions
    • Significant child labor in factories and agriculture, although new laws attempted to limit this (12 years for factories, exemption for agriculture)
    • Many low-paying jobs particularly filled by women and children, especially in textiles.

  • Living Conditions

    • Tenement housing characterized by overcrowding and lack of proper sanitation
    • Existing conditions: few indoor toilets, trash accumulation, violence
    • Notable account: Jacob Riis's "How the Other Half Lives" highlighted these issues.

  • Urban Transportation Development

    • Development of transit systems such as subways and elevated railways facilitated city growth.

Political Machines

  • Definition and Role

    • Political machines controlled urban life, often stepping in to provide necessary social services to residents, especially immigrants
    • Focused on winning votes, sometimes through bribery and violence
    • Run by powerful party bosses; the most infamous was Tammany Hall with Boss Tweed at the forefront.

  • Quip by Boss Tweed: "As long as I count the votes, what are you going to do about it? Say I?"

Education

  • Growing Demand

    • Increasing need for specialized job skills led to the establishment of public education systems
    • By 1900, 31 states enacted compulsory education laws for primary and secondary education.

  • Access to Education

    • Disparities in access remained; urban children had better access than rural counterparts
    • African Americans and Native Americans often denied educational rights, particularly in the South
    • Women frequently barred from higher education opportunities.

  • Private and Public Universities

    • Emergence of private universities (e.g., MIT, John Hopkins) alongside public universities created through the Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862.

Medical Advances

  • Improvements in Healthcare
    • Advances in medical understanding and technology: Germ Theory, better diagnostics (e.g., X-rays), medicines like aspirin, and blood transfusions
    • Increased emphasis on hygiene within medical practices (e.g., sterilization).