What is the volume of blood the heart pumps through the body each day?; The heart pumps 7,000 liters of blood through the body each day. How many times does the heart contract in an average lifetime?; The heart contracts 2.5 billion times in an average lifetime. What is the order of blood flow through the blood vessels starting from arteries?; The heart pumps blood through the blood vessels in this order: arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins → back to heart. What components make up the cardiovascular system?; The heart and all blood vessels make up the cardiovascular system. What does the term 'Cardiovascular' refer to?; Cardiovascular refers to both the heart and blood vessels. What is the function of the pumping action of the heart?; The pumping action of the heart transports blood through blood vessels. What are the two circuits formed by blood vessels?; The two circuits formed by blood vessels are the Pulmonary Circuit and the Systemic Circuit. What is the function of the Pulmonary Circuit?; The Pulmonary Circuit transports oxygen-poor blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. In the lungs, blood picks up O2 and drops off CO2. What is the function of the Systemic Circuit?; The Systemic Circuit transports oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all body cells and back to the heart. Blood delivers nutrients to cells and removes wastes. What type of blood does the left side of the heart contain?; The left side of the heart contains oxygen-rich blood. What type of blood does the right side of the heart contain?; The right side of the heart contains oxygen-poor blood. What are the two circuits through which blood runs in the body?; The two circuits are the pulmonary circuit, which goes to the lungs, and the systemic circuit, which goes to body cells. What is the shape and function of the heart?; The heart is a hollow, cone-shaped, muscular pump. Where is the heart located?; The heart is located in the mediastinum of the thoracic cavity, superior to the diaphragm. How many chambers does the heart contain?; The heart contains 4 chambers: 2 atria (upper chambers) and 2 ventricles (lower chambers, responsible for pumping action). What is the average size of the heart?; The average size of the heart is 14 cm long and 9 cm wide. Where is the heart located in the thoracic cavity?; The heart is located posterior to the sternum, medial to the lungs, and anterior to the vertebral column. Where does the base of the heart lie?; The base of the heart lies beneath the 2nd rib. Where does the apex of the heart lie?; The apex of the heart lies at the 5th intercostal space. Where is the heart located in the human body?; The heart is located in the thoracic cavity, between the lungs, and slightly left of the midline. What is the significance of the heart's location in the thoracic cavity?; The heart's location in the thoracic cavity, protected by the rib cage and situated between the lungs, provides it with structural protection and proximity to the lungs for efficient oxygenation of blood. What is the mediastinum, and how is it related to the heart?; The mediastinum is the central compartment of the thoracic cavity that houses the heart, trachea, esophagus, and other vital structures. Why is the heart slightly left of the midline?; The heart is slightly left of the midline to accommodate its left ventricle, which is larger and more muscular to pump blood throughout the body. What is the Pericardium?; The Pericardium is the covering over the heart and large blood vessels. What is the Fibrous Pericardium?; The Fibrous Pericardium is the outer layer that surrounds the double-layered serous membrane. What is the Parietal Pericardium?; The Parietal Pericardium is deep to the fibrous pericardium and is the outer layer of the serous membrane. What is the Visceral Pericardium?; The Visceral Pericardium is the inner layer of the serous membrane that is attached to the surface of the heart; it is also called the epicardium. What is the Epicardium?; The Epicardium is the outer layer of the heart wall, also called the visceral pericardium, and it is a thin layer. What is the Myocardium?; The Myocardium is the middle layer of the heart wall, composed of cardiac muscle tissue, and it is the thickest layer. What is the Endocardium?; The Endocardium is the inner layer of the heart wall that forms the inner lining of all heart chambers and is a thin layer. What is the Epicardium (visceral pericardium)?; The Epicardium is a serous membrane of connective tissue covered with epithelium and includes blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, and nerve fibers. It forms a protective outer covering and secretes serous fluid. What is the composition and function of the Myocardium?; The Myocardium is composed of cardiac muscle tissue separated by connective tissue and includes blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, and nerve fibers. Its function is to contract and pump blood from the heart chambers. What is the Endocardium?; The Endocardium is a membrane of epithelium and underlying connective tissue, including blood vessels. It forms a protective inner lining of the chambers and valves. What are the four chambers of the heart?; The heart is divided into 4 chambers: 2 atria and 2 ventricles. What is the function of the atria?; Atria are thin-walled upper chambers that receive blood returning to the heart. What are auricles and their function?; Auricles are flap-like projections from the atria that allow atrial expansion. What is the function of the ventricles?; Ventricles are thick-walled lower chambers that pump blood into arteries. What is the role of the right atrium?; The right atrium receives blood returning from the systemic circuit (from the superior and inferior vena cavae and coronary sinus) and pumps blood to the right ventricle. What is the function of the right ventricle?; The right ventricle receives blood from the right atrium and pumps blood to the lungs. What is the role of the left atrium?; The left atrium receives blood from the pulmonary veins and pumps blood to the left ventricle. What is the function of the left ventricle?; The left ventricle receives blood from the left atrium and pumps blood to the systemic circuit. What is the location and function of the tricuspid valve?; The tricuspid valve is located at the right atrioventricular orifice and prevents blood from moving from the right ventricle into the right atrium during ventricular contraction. What is the location and function of the pulmonary valve?; The pulmonary valve is located at the entrance to the pulmonary trunk and prevents blood from moving from the pulmonary trunk into the right ventricle during ventricular relaxation. What is the location and function of the mitral valve?; The mitral valve is located at the left atrioventricular orifice and prevents blood from moving from the left ventricle into the left atrium during ventricular contraction. What is the location and function of the aortic valve?; The aortic valve is located at the entrance to the aorta and prevents blood from moving from the aorta into the left ventricle during ventricular relaxation. What is the cardiovascular system?; The cardiovascular system is a complex network of the heart and blood vessels responsible for circulating blood throughout the body, delivering oxygen and nutrients to tissues, and removing waste products. What is the function of the heart?; The heart functions as a pump that moves blood throughout the body via the circulatory system, supplying oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes. What are the two main circulation pathways in the body?; The two main circulation pathways are the systemic circulation, which delivers blood to the entire body, and the pulmonary circulation, which exchanges gases in the lungs. What are arteries?; Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the tissues of the body. What is blood pressure?; Blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels, typically measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg). What is the cardiac cycle?; The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events in a heartbeat, including the contraction and relaxation of the atria and ventricles. What is venous return?; Venous return is the flow of blood back to the heart through the veins. What are the major arteries in the arterial system?; The major arteries in the arterial system include the aorta, coronary arteries, carotid arteries, and the arteries of the limbs. How does the cardiovascular system change with age?; With age, the cardiovascular system undergoes changes such as stiffening of the arteries, reduced cardiac output, and increased risk of cardiovascular diseases. What are some common cardiovascular diseases?; Common cardiovascular diseases include hypertension, coronary artery disease, heart failure, and stroke. What is the tricuspid valve?; The tricuspid valve is a valve in the heart situated between the right atrium and the right ventricle. It prevents backflow of blood into the right atrium when the right ventricle contracts. What is the mitral (bicuspid) valve?; The mitral valve, also known as the bicuspid valve, is a valve in the heart located between the left atrium and the left ventricle. It prevents backflow of blood into the left atrium when the left ventricle contracts. What is the aortic valve?; The aortic valve is a valve in the heart located between the left ventricle and the aorta. It prevents backflow of blood into the left ventricle after it has been pumped into the aorta. What is the pulmonary valve?; The pulmonary valve is a valve in the heart located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery. It prevents backflow of blood into the right ventricle after it has been pumped into the pulmonary artery. What is the skeleton of the heart?; The skeleton of the heart is made up of rings of dense connective tissue that surround the origins of the pulmonary trunk and aorta, and the orifices between the atria and ventricles. These provide attachments for heart valves and muscle fibers and prevent excess dilation of heart chambers during contraction. What is the function of the rings of dense connective tissue in the heart?; The rings of dense connective tissue in the heart provide attachments for heart valves and muscle fibers, and prevent excess dilation of heart chambers during contraction. Where are the rings of dense connective tissue located in the heart?; The rings of dense connective tissue are located around the origins of the pulmonary trunk and aorta, and the orifices between the atria and ventricles. What structures make up the skeleton of the heart?; The skeleton of the heart is made up of rings of dense connective tissue and other fibrous masses in the interventricular septum. What is the function of the right atrium?; The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body through the superior and inferior vena cava. What is the purpose of the tricuspid valve?; The tricuspid valve prevents backflow of blood from the right ventricle to the right atrium. Where does the right ventricle pump blood?; The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary arteries, which transport it to the lungs for oxygenation. What is the function of the pulmonary valve?; The pulmonary valve prevents backflow of blood from the pulmonary arteries into the right ventricle. What role does the left atrium play in blood circulation?; The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through the pulmonary veins. What is the function of the mitral valve?; The mitral valve prevents backflow of blood from the left ventricle to the left atrium. Where does the left ventricle pump blood?; The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta, which distributes it throughout the body. What is the purpose of the aortic valve?; The aortic valve prevents backflow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle. What is the significance of the superior vena cava?; The superior vena cava returns deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the right atrium. What is the role of the inferior vena cava?; The inferior vena cava returns deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the right atrium. What is the function of the pulmonary arteries?; The pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs. What is the role of the pulmonary veins?; The pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium. What is the function of the aorta?; The aorta distributes oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body. What do the left and right coronary arteries supply blood to?; The left and right coronary arteries supply blood to tissues of the heart. What are the first 2 branches of the aorta?; The coronary arteries are the first 2 branches of the aorta. What is the function of the coronary arteries?; The coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscle, providing it with the necessary oxygen and nutrients to function. What is the role of the coronary veins?; The coronary veins collect deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle and return it to the right atrium of the heart. Where does the right coronary artery supply blood?; The right coronary artery supplies blood to the right atrium, right ventricle, and parts of the left ventricle and the heart's conduction system. What areas does the left coronary artery supply?; The left coronary artery supplies blood to the left atrium, left ventricle, and the interventricular septum. What is the function of the anterior interventricular artery?; The anterior interventricular artery, a branch of the left coronary artery, supplies blood to the front and bottom of the left ventricle and the front of the septum. What does the circumflex artery supply?; The circumflex artery, a branch of the left coronary artery, supplies blood to the left atrium and the side and back of the left ventricle. What is the purpose of the posterior interventricular artery?; The posterior interventricular artery, a branch of the right coronary artery, supplies blood to the posterior part of the heart's ventricles and the interventricular septum. What is the function of the small cardiac vein?; The small cardiac vein drains blood from the right atrium and right ventricle into the coronary sinus. What is the coronary sinus and its function?; The coronary sinus is a large vein on the posterior of the heart that collects blood from the coronary veins and empties it into the right atrium. What is the role of the great cardiac vein?; The great cardiac vein runs alongside the anterior interventricular artery and drains blood from the front of the heart into the coronary sinus. What is the function of the cardiovascular system?; The cardiovascular system is responsible for transporting nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to cells throughout the body and removing metabolic wastes. What is the role of the heart in the cardiovascular system?; The heart functions as a pump to circulate blood throughout the body, maintaining the flow of blood to tissues and organs. What are the primary pathways of blood circulation?; The primary pathways of blood circulation are the systemic circulation, which supplies blood to the body, and the pulmonary circulation, which carries blood to the lungs for oxygenation. What is the significance of blood vessels in the cardiovascular system?; Blood vessels, including arteries, veins, and capillaries, are responsible for the distribution and return of blood throughout the body. How is blood pressure regulated in the body?; Blood pressure is regulated by a combination of neural, hormonal, and renal mechanisms that adjust the force and volume of blood flow. What is the cardiac cycle?; The cardiac cycle refers to the sequence of events in the heart from one heartbeat to the next, including systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation). What is the function of the venous system?; The venous system returns deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart and helps maintain blood pressure and volume. What is the role of the arterial system?; The arterial system carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the tissues and organs of the body. How does the cardiovascular system change with age?; With age, the cardiovascular system undergoes changes such as reduced elasticity of blood vessels, decreased cardiac output, and increased risk of cardiovascular diseases. What are some common cardiovascular diseases and disorders?; Common cardiovascular diseases and disorders include hypertension, coronary artery disease, heart failure, and arrhythmias. What is the Cardiac Cycle?; The events of a heartbeat, where the heart chambers function in a coordinated manner and heart actions are regulated so that atria contract (atrial systole) while ventricles relax (ventricular diastole); then ventricles contract (ventricular systole) while atria relax (atrial diastole). What occurs during atrial systole?; During atrial systole, the atria contract while the ventricles relax (ventricular diastole). What occurs during ventricular systole?; During ventricular systole, the ventricles contract while the atria relax (atrial diastole). What is a Heart Transplant?; Replacement of most of a failing heart with a donor heart. What is a Left Ventricular Assist Device (LVAD)?; A mechanical half-heart, used in some cases temporarily, until a donor heart is available. What is an Implantable Replacement Heart?; A titanium and plastic artificial heart, used in people that cannot have a heart transplant and do not have long to live. What is Stem Cell Technology in the context of heart treatment?; Cardiac muscle tissue can now be cultured from altered somatic cells or from stem cells, potentially allowing for 'stem cell heart patches' in the future. What happens to the ventricles during atrial systole and ventricular diastole?; The ventricles are relaxed. What happens to the A-V valves and semilunar valves during atrial systole and ventricular diastole?; The A-V valves open and the semilunar valves close. What percentage of blood flows passively from atria into ventricles during atrial systole and ventricular diastole?; About 70% of blood flows passively from atria into ventricles. What causes ventricular pressure to increase during atrial systole?; Atrial systole pushes the remaining 30% of blood into the ventricles, causing ventricular pressure to increase. What happens to the A-V valves during ventricular systole and atrial diastole?; The A-V valves close. What prevents the cusps of the valves from bulging too far backward into the atria during ventricular systole?; The chordae tendineae prevent the cusps of the valves from bulging too far backward into the atria. What happens to the atria during ventricular systole?; The atria relax. Where does blood flow into the atria from during ventricular systole?; Blood flows into atria from venae cavae and pulmonary veins. What opens the semilunar valves during ventricular systole?; The ventricular pressure increases and opens the semilunar valves. Where does blood flow during ventricular systole?; Blood flows into the pulmonary trunk and aorta. What causes the 'lubb' sound in a heartbeat?; The 'lubb' sound is the first heart sound, occurring during ventricular systole and is associated with the closing of the A-V valves. What causes the 'dupp' sound in a heartbeat?; The 'dupp' sound is the second heart sound, occurring during ventricular diastole and is associated with the closing of the pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves. What is a heart murmur?; A heart murmur is an abnormal heart sound derived from the incomplete closure of cusps of a valve. What are the regions at which sounds of heart valves can be heard?; The regions at which sounds of heart valves can be heard are specific anatomical locations on the chest where the sounds of different heart valves closing can be auscultated using a stethoscope. These regions are typically used to listen to the sounds of the aortic valve, pulmonary valve, tricuspid valve, and mitral valve. What is a functional syncytium in cardiac muscle?; A functional syncytium is a mass of merging cells that function as a unit. In the heart, there are two such masses: the atrial syncytium in the atrial walls and the ventricular syncytium in the ventricular walls. What role do intercalated discs play in cardiac muscle cells?; Intercalated discs between cardiac muscle cells contain gap junctions, which allow action potentials to spread through a network of cells. Where are the two functional syncytia located in the heart?; The two functional syncytia in the heart are located in the atrial walls (atrial syncytium) and the ventricular walls (ventricular syncytium). What is the Cardiac Conduction System?; A group of clumps and strands of specialized cardiac muscle tissue, which initiates and distributes impulses throughout the myocardium, coordinating the events of the cardiac cycle. What is the function of the SA (Sinoatrial) Node?; Pacemaker; initiates rhythmic contractions of the heart. What is the role of the Internodal Atrial Muscle?; Conducts impulses from SA node to atria. What is the function of Junctional Fibers in the cardiac conduction system?; Conduct impulses from SA node to AV node. What does the AV (Atrioventricular) Node do?; Conducts impulses to AV Bundle; delays impulse, so that atria finish contracting before ventricles contract. What is the function of the AV (Atrioventricular) Bundle (of His)?; Conducts impulses rapidly between SA node and bundle branches. What is the role of the Left and Right Bundle Branches?; Split off from AV bundle, conduct impulses to Purkinje fibers on both sides of heart. What is the function of Purkinje Fibers?; Large fibers that conduct impulses to ventricular myocardium. What are the major components of the cardiac conduction system?; The major components of the cardiac conduction system include the sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers. What happens when Purkinje fibers stimulate muscle cells in the ventricles?; When Purkinje fibers stimulate muscle cells, the ventricles contract with a twisting motion. What is an Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)?; A recording of electrical changes that occur in the myocardium during the cardiac cycle, used to assess the heart’s ability to conduct impulses. What does the P wave in a normal ECG represent?; Atrial depolarization; occurs just prior to atrial contraction. What does the QRS complex in a normal ECG represent?; Ventricular depolarization; occurs just prior to ventricular contraction. What does the T wave in a normal ECG represent?; Ventricular repolarization; occurs just prior to ventricular relaxation. Why is the record of atrial repolarization not visible in a normal ECG?; It is 'hidden' in the large QRS complex, since ventricular depolarization is a much larger event. What is the primary function of the cardiovascular system?; The primary function of the cardiovascular system is to transport nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to cells throughout the body and remove metabolic wastes such as carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes. What is the role of the heart in the cardiovascular system?; The heart acts as a pump that propels blood throughout the body, supplying oxygen and nutrients while removing waste products from tissues. Define systemic circulation.; Systemic circulation is the part of the cardiovascular system that carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body, and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart. What is pulmonary circulation?; Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs, and returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart. What are capillaries and their function?; Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in the body where the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste products occurs between blood and tissues. What is the significance of blood pressure regulation?; Blood pressure regulation is crucial for maintaining adequate blood flow to organs and tissues, ensuring they receive sufficient oxygen and nutrients while removing waste products. Describe the cardiac cycle.; The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occur when the heart beats, including the contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) of the atria and ventricles to pump blood. What is an ECG (electrocardiogram)?; An ECG (electrocardiogram) is a test that measures the electrical activity of the heart to detect abnormalities in heart rhythm and structure. What is the function of the venous system?; The venous system is responsible for returning deoxygenated blood back to the heart from various parts of the body. Define arteries and their function.; Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the tissues of the body. What changes occur in the cardiovascular system during aging?; During aging, the cardiovascular system undergoes changes such as decreased elasticity of blood vessels, reduced cardiac output, and an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases. What are some common cardiovascular diseases and disorders?; Common cardiovascular diseases and disorders include hypertension, coronary artery disease, heart failure, and arrhythmias. What is the cardiovascular system?; The cardiovascular system is the body system consisting of the heart, blood vessels, and blood, responsible for circulating blood and transporting nutrients, oxygen, and waste products throughout the body. What is the function of the heart?; The heart functions as a pump that moves blood through the circulatory system, supplying oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes. What are the main components of blood?; The main components of blood include red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma. What are arteries?; Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart to the tissues of the body. What are veins?; Veins are blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart from the tissues of the body. What is the aorta?; The aorta is the largest artery in the body, originating from the left ventricle of the heart and distributing oxygenated blood to all parts of the body through the systemic circulation. What is the role of capillaries?; Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels where the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products occurs between blood and tissues. What is blood pressure?; Blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels, typically measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg). What is the cardiac cycle?; The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events in one heartbeat, including the contraction and relaxation of the atria and ventricles. What is an ECG?; An ECG (electrocardiogram) is a test that measures the electrical activity of the heart to show whether or not it is working normally. What is systemic circulation?; Systemic circulation is the part of the cardiovascular system that carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the body and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart. What is pulmonary circulation?; Pulmonary circulation is the part of the cardiovascular system that carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood back to the heart. What is the function of red blood cells?; Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, transport oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and return carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. What is the function of white blood cells?; White blood cells, or leukocytes, are part of the immune system and help the body fight infection and other diseases. What are platelets?; Platelets, or thrombocytes, are small blood components that help in blood clotting and wound healing. What is plasma?; Plasma is the liquid component of blood that carries cells, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body. What is hypertension?; Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is a condition where the force of the blood against the artery walls is too high, which can lead to health problems such as heart disease. What is atherosclerosis?; Atherosclerosis is a cardiovascular disease characterized by the buildup of fatty deposits (plaque) on the walls of arteries, leading to reduced blood flow. What is the function of the venous system?; The venous system returns deoxygenated blood from the body's tissues back to the heart. What is the role of the coronary arteries?; Coronary arteries supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle itself. What node normally controls the heart rate?; The SA node normally controls the heart rate. What type of fibers modify the heart rate in response to changing conditions?; Sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers modify the heart rate in response to changing conditions. What are some conditions that can modify the heart rate?; Physical exercise, body temperature, fight-or-flight response, and concentration of various ions such as K+ and Ca2+ can modify the heart rate. How do parasympathetic impulses affect the heart rate?; Parasympathetic impulses via vagus nerves decrease heart rate due to their influence on SA and AV nodes. How do sympathetic impulses affect the heart rate?; Sympathetic impulses via accelerator nerves increase heart rate due to their influence on SA and AV nodes, and ventricular myocardium. What reflexes arise from the cardiac control center in the medulla oblongata?; Baroreceptor reflexes arise from the cardiac control center in the medulla oblongata. What is the function of the cardiac control center?; The cardiac control center regulates autonomic impulses to the heart and balances inhibitory and excitatory effects of parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers. What is the Baroreceptor Reflex?; The Baroreceptor Reflex is a mechanism that helps maintain blood pressure at nearly constant levels. It involves sensors (baroreceptors) that detect changes in blood pressure and send signals to the autonomic nervous system to adjust heart rate and vessel diameter accordingly. What is a general reflex arc?; A general reflex arc is the neural pathway that mediates a reflex action. It typically involves a sensory receptor, a sensory neuron, an integration center, a motor neuron, and an effector. How do autonomic impulses alter heart action?; Autonomic impulses alter heart action by either increasing or decreasing the heart rate and the force of contraction. The sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate and force, while the parasympathetic nervous system decreases them. What is an arrhythmia?; Altered heart rhythms; several types include fibrillation, tachycardia, bradycardia, flutter, and premature beat. What is fibrillation?; Uncoordinated, chaotic contraction of small areas of myocardium. Atrial fibrillation is not life-threatening, but ventricular fibrillation is often fatal. What is tachycardia?; An abnormally fast heartbeat, greater than 100 beats per minute at rest. What is bradycardia?; An abnormally slow heartbeat, less than 60 beats per minute at rest. What is flutter?; Rapid, regular contraction of a heart chamber, occurring at 250-350 beats per minute. What is a premature beat?; A beat that occurs before expected in the normal cardiac cycle; often originates from ectopic regions of the heart (other than the SA node). What is an ectopic pacemaker?; Damage to the SA node may lead to the AV node taking over and acting as a secondary pacemaker, with a rate of 40-60 beats per minute instead of 70-80. What is an artificial pacemaker?; A device used to treat disorders of the cardiac conduction system; it is implantable and battery-powered. What are blood vessels?; Blood vessels are organs of the cardiovascular system that form a closed circuit, transporting blood from the heart to body cells (or lungs) and back to the heart. What is the function of arteries?; Arteries carry blood away from the ventricles of the heart. What is the role of arterioles in the cardiovascular system?; Arterioles receive blood from the arteries and carry it to the capillaries. What is the primary function of capillaries?; Capillaries are the sites of exchange of substances between the blood and the body cells. What function do venules serve?; Venules receive blood from the capillaries and conduct it to veins. What is the role of veins in the cardiovascular system?; Veins receive blood from venules and carry it back to the atria of the heart. What is an arteriole?; An arteriole is a small diameter blood vessel that extends and branches out from an artery and leads to capillaries. What is a venule?; A venule is a small blood vessel that allows deoxygenated blood to return from the capillary beds to larger blood vessels called veins. What is angiogenesis?; Formation of new blood vessels. What primarily controls angiogenesis?; Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF). Why is angiogenesis regulated in the body?; Excess, deficient, or inappropriate blood vessel formation can cause common diseases. How does the body promote angiogenesis in response to a blocked coronary artery?; The body secretes VEGF in response to a blocked coronary artery. What is a potential treatment if natural VEGF secretion is insufficient to promote angiogenesis?; VEGF may be able to be delivered in time-release capsules. How do tumors utilize angiogenesis?; Tumors secrete VEGF to nourish themselves. What are antiangiogenesis drugs used for?; Antiangiogenesis drugs are used to treat cancer and age-related macular degeneration. What is the structure of arteries?; Arteries have a thick, strong wall, thicker than the walls of veins, and consist of three layers or tunics: the tunica interna (intima), tunica media, and tunica externa (adventitia). What is the tunica interna (intima) in arteries?; The tunica interna (intima) is the innermost layer of an artery. What is the tunica media in arteries?; The tunica media is the middle layer of an artery, composed of smooth muscle and elastic tissue. What is the tunica externa (adventitia) in arteries?; The tunica externa (adventitia) is the outer layer of an artery, consisting of connective tissue. What is the primary function of arteries?; Arteries transport blood under high blood pressure. What do arteries give rise to?; Arteries give rise to smaller arterioles. What are arterioles?; Arterioles are blood vessels with a thinner wall than arteries, consisting of the same three layers or tunics. The walls of the middle and outer layers become thinner as arterioles become smaller. What is a common characteristic of both arteries and arterioles?; Both arteries and arterioles can undergo vasoconstriction and vasodilation. What is the structure of small arterioles?; Small arterioles only contain a few muscle fibers in their walls. What are capillaries?; Capillaries are the smallest-diameter blood vessels that connect the smallest arterioles and the smallest venules. They are extensions of the inner lining of arterioles, consist of endothelium (simple squamous epithelium) only, and are semi-permeable. What regulates capillary blood flow?; Capillary blood flow is regulated mainly by precapillary sphincters, which are smooth muscle surrounding the capillary when it branches off an arteriole or metarteriole. What is the primary method by which substances are exchanged in capillaries?; Substances are exchanged by diffusion. Where are the openings in the walls of capillaries found?; Openings in the walls of capillaries are found where endothelial cells overlap. How does the size of openings in capillary walls vary?; The sizes of openings vary among tissues. What factor affects the permeability of capillaries?; Permeability varies with the size of the slits in the capillary walls. What determines the density of capillary networks in a tissue?; The metabolic rate of the tissue determines the density of its capillary networks. Higher metabolic rate tissues have denser capillary networks. Why do muscle and nerve tissues have a rich capillary supply?; Muscle and nerve tissues have a rich capillary supply because they use a large amount of oxygen (O2) and nutrients. Which type of tissue has fewer capillaries due to a lower metabolic rate?; Tissues with a lower metabolic rate, such as cartilage, have fewer capillaries. What is the primary function of capillaries in the cardiovascular system?; Capillaries exchange gases, nutrients, and metabolic byproducts between blood and tissue around cells. What is the most important method of transfer in capillary exchange?; Diffusion is the most important method of transfer in capillary exchange. How do lipid-soluble substances transfer through capillary membranes?; Lipid-soluble substances diffuse through the cell membrane. How do water-soluble substances transfer through capillary membranes?; Water-soluble substances diffuse through membrane channels and slits. What role does hydrostatic pressure play in capillary exchange?; Hydrostatic pressure forces molecules through the membrane during filtration. Where does the pressure for filtration in capillary exchange come from?; The pressure for filtration is derived from ventricular contraction. What creates osmotic pressure in capillaries?; The presence of impermeant solute, such as plasma proteins, inside capillaries creates osmotic pressure. What effect does osmotic pressure have on water in capillaries?; Osmotic pressure draws water into capillaries, opposing filtration. What happens at the arteriolar end of a capillary during capillary exchange?; At the arteriolar end of a capillary, H2O and other substances leave the capillary because hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmotic pressure. What happens at the venular end of a capillary during capillary exchange?; At the venular end of a capillary, H2O enters the capillary because osmotic pressure is greater than hydrostatic pressure. What are venules?; Microscopic vessels that transport blood from the capillaries to veins, with thinner walls and less smooth muscle than arterioles. What is a characteristic of veins compared to arteries?; Veins have thinner walls than arteries, consisting of three layers or tunics. How developed is the tunica media in veins?; The tunica media is less developed in veins compared to arteries. Under what pressure do veins carry blood?; Veins carry blood under relatively low pressure. What is one of the functions of veins?; Veins function as blood reservoirs. What unique feature do many veins have?; Many veins have flap-like valves. What proportion of blood is in veins and venules at any time?; About 2/3 of blood is in veins and venules at any time. What is the function of an artery?; Carries blood under relatively high pressure from the heart to arterioles. What are the characteristics of the wall of an artery?; Thick, strong wall with three layers — an endothelial lining, a middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue, and an outer layer of connective tissue. What is the function of an arteriole?; Connects an artery to a capillary, helps control the blood flow into a capillary by vasoconstricting or vasodilating. What are the characteristics of the wall of an arteriole?; Thinner wall than an artery but with three layers; smaller arterioles have an endothelial lining, some smooth muscle tissue, and a small amount of connective tissue. What is the function of a capillary?; Allows nutrients, gases, and wastes to be exchanged between the blood and tissue fluid. What are the characteristics of the wall of a capillary?; Single layer of squamous epithelium. What is the function of a venule?; Connects a capillary to a vein. What are the characteristics of the wall of a venule?; Thinner wall than an arteriole, less smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue. What is the function of a vein?; Carries blood under relatively low pressure from a venule to the heart; valves prevent a backflow of blood; serves as a blood reservoir. What are the characteristics of the wall of a vein?; Thinner wall than an artery but with similar layers; the middle layer is more poorly developed; some have flap-like valves. What is Atherosclerosis?; Deposits of cholesterol plaque form in the inner lining of walls of arteries. What is an Aneurysm?; A bulge in the wall of an artery, formed when blood pressure dilates a weakened area of the vessel; can burst the wall of the artery. What is Phlebitis?; Inflammation of a vein; a common disorder. What are Varicose Veins?; Abnormal and irregular dilations in superficial veins; most common in legs. What is blood pressure?; The force the blood exerts against the inner walls of the blood vessels. Where does the term 'blood pressure' most commonly refer to pressure?; In systemic arteries. How does blood move throughout the vascular system?; Blood moves from higher to lower pressure throughout the system. What is arterial blood pressure?; Arterial blood pressure is the pressure of the blood within the arteries, which rises when the ventricles contract and falls when the ventricles relax. What is systolic pressure (SP)?; Systolic pressure (SP) is the maximum pressure reached during ventricular contraction. What is diastolic pressure (DP)?; Diastolic pressure (DP) is the minimum pressure remaining before the next ventricular contraction. What is pulse pressure (PP)?; Pulse pressure (PP) is the difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressures (SP - DP). What is mean arterial pressure (MAP)?; Mean arterial pressure (MAP) is the average pressure in the arterial system, representing the average force driving blood to the tissues. It can be approximated by the formula: MAP ≈ DP + 1/3(PP). How is blood pressure typically stated?; Blood pressure is typically stated as a fraction, such as 120/80 mm Hg, where 120 represents the systolic pressure and 80 represents the diastolic pressure. What is typically used to measure arterial blood pressure?; A sphygmomanometer is typically used to measure arterial blood pressure. What happens to blood pressure as distance from the left ventricle increases?; Blood pressure decreases as distance from the left ventricle increases. What are the sites at which the pulse is most easily detected?; The sites at which the pulse is most easily detected are specific locations on the body where arteries are close to the skin and can be pressed against a bone. What is arterial blood pressure?; Arterial blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood upon the walls of arteries. What factors influence arterial blood pressure?; Factors that influence arterial blood pressure include blood volume, heart rate, stroke volume, blood viscosity, and peripheral resistance. How does blood volume affect arterial blood pressure?; Blood volume affects arterial blood pressure because an increase in blood volume raises blood pressure, while a decrease in blood volume lowers blood pressure. What is the role of heart rate in arterial blood pressure?; Heart rate influences arterial blood pressure as an increase in heart rate can raise blood pressure, whereas a decrease in heart rate can lower blood pressure. Define stroke volume and its impact on arterial blood pressure.; Stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle of the heart in one contraction. An increase in stroke volume raises arterial blood pressure. How does blood viscosity influence arterial blood pressure?; Blood viscosity refers to the thickness and stickiness of blood. Higher blood viscosity increases resistance and thus raises arterial blood pressure. What is peripheral resistance and its effect on arterial blood pressure?; Peripheral resistance is the resistance of the arteries to blood flow. Increased peripheral resistance raises arterial blood pressure, while decreased peripheral resistance lowers it. What is stroke volume (SV)?; Volume of blood that enters the arteries with each ventricular contraction (~70 mL/beat). What is cardiac output (CO)?; Volume of blood discharged from a ventricle each minute. Cardiac output is calculated as Stroke volume (SV) × Heart rate (HR). How is cardiac output (CO) calculated?; Cardiac output is calculated as Stroke volume (SV) × Heart rate (HR). For example, CO = 70 mL/beat × 72 beats/min = 5,040 mL/min. How does an increase in stroke volume (SV) or heart rate (HR) affect blood pressure?; An increase in SV or HR causes an increase in cardiac output (CO), which increases blood pressure (BP). What is Blood Volume?; Blood Volume is the sum of volumes of plasma and formed elements. It varies with age, body size, and gender, and is usually about 5 liters for adults (about 4 to 5 liters in a female and 5 to 6 liters in a male). It constitutes 8% of body weight. How does Blood Volume affect Blood Pressure (BP)?; Blood pressure (BP) is directly proportional to blood volume. Any factor that changes blood volume can change BP. For example, decreased blood volume due to hemorrhage decreases BP. What is Peripheral Resistance (PR)?; Peripheral Resistance (PR) is the force of friction between blood and the walls of blood vessels. What must blood pressure overcome in order to flow?; Blood pressure must overcome Peripheral Resistance (PR) in order to flow. How does vasoconstriction of arterioles affect Peripheral Resistance (PR) and blood pressure?; Vasoconstriction of arterioles increases Peripheral Resistance (PR), which increases blood pressure. What happens to arteries when blood is pumped out of ventricles?; When blood is pumped out of ventricles, arteries swell; rapid elastic recoil sends the blood through the arteries, against Peripheral Resistance (PR) in arterioles and capillaries. What is viscosity in the context of blood flow?; Viscosity is the difficulty with which molecules of fluid flow past each other. Greater viscosity means greater resistance to blood flow. How do blood cells and plasma proteins affect blood viscosity?; Blood cells and plasma proteins increase the viscosity of the blood, which increases the resistance to blood flow. What happens to blood pressure when blood viscosity increases?; When blood viscosity increases, the resistance to flow increases, requiring greater force to transport the blood, which in turn increases blood pressure. How does anemia affect blood viscosity and blood pressure?; Anemia lowers the concentration of blood cells, which lowers blood viscosity and consequently lowers blood pressure. What factors can alter blood viscosity?; Any factor that alters the concentration of blood cells or plasma proteins also alters blood viscosity. What does BP stand for in the context of cardiovascular physiology?; BP stands for Blood Pressure. What is the formula to determine Blood Pressure (BP)?; Blood Pressure (BP) is determined by the formula BP = CO × PR, where CO is Cardiac Output and PR is Peripheral Resistance. What does CO stand for in the context of blood pressure regulation?; CO stands for Cardiac Output. What does PR stand for in the context of blood pressure regulation?; PR stands for Peripheral Resistance. What are the two factors that need to be regulated to maintain blood pressure?; The two factors that need to be regulated to maintain blood pressure are Cardiac Output (CO) and Peripheral Resistance (PR). What is the primary function of the cardiovascular system?; The primary function of the cardiovascular system is to transport nutrients, gases, hormones, and wastes to and from the cells of the body. What are the main components of the cardiovascular system?; The main components of the cardiovascular system are the heart, blood vessels, and blood. What is the role of the heart in the cardiovascular system?; The heart acts as a pump that propels blood through the blood vessels to various parts of the body. What are the two main types of blood circulation pathways?; The two main types of blood circulation pathways are systemic circulation and pulmonary circulation. What is systemic circulation?; Systemic circulation is the pathway in which oxygen-rich blood is carried from the left side of the heart to the body tissues and oxygen-poor blood is returned to the right side of the heart. What is pulmonary circulation?; Pulmonary circulation is the pathway in which oxygen-poor blood is carried from the right side of the heart to the lungs for oxygenation and then back to the left side of the heart. What are arteries?; Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart to the tissues of the body. What are veins?; Veins are blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart from the tissues of the body. What is the function of capillaries?; Capillaries are small blood vessels where the exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes occurs between blood and body tissues. How is blood pressure regulated?; Blood pressure is regulated by a combination of neural, hormonal, and renal mechanisms that adjust the diameter of blood vessels, heart rate, and blood volume. What is the cardiac cycle?; The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occur during one heartbeat, including the contraction and relaxation of the atria and ventricles. What does an electrocardiogram (ECG) measure?; An electrocardiogram (ECG) measures the electrical activity of the heart and is used to assess heart function and detect abnormalities. What is venous return?; Venous return is the flow of blood back to the heart through the veins. What factors influence venous return?; Factors that influence venous return include the pressure gradient between veins and the heart, venous valves, skeletal muscle contractions, and respiratory movements. What are the major arteries of the arterial system?; The major arteries of the arterial system include the aorta, coronary arteries, carotid arteries, and the arteries of the limbs. What changes occur in the cardiovascular system with aging?; With aging, the cardiovascular system undergoes changes such as thickening of the arterial walls, decreased elasticity, and reduced cardiac output. What are common cardiovascular diseases and disorders?; Common cardiovascular diseases and disorders include hypertension, coronary artery disease, heart failure, and arrhythmias. What is hypertension?; Hypertension is long-lasting elevated arterial blood pressure. What are some causes of hypertension?; Hypertension can be caused by unknown factors, increased sodium intake, psychological stress that activates the sympathetic nervous system, obesity (which increases peripheral resistance), and kidney disease (via the renin-angiotensin response). Why is hypertension often referred to as the 'silent killer'?; Hypertension is called the 'silent killer' because it may not cause any direct symptoms. How does hypertension contribute to the formation of atherosclerosis?; Hypertension contributes to the formation of atherosclerosis by causing damage to the arterial walls, which can lead to plaque buildup. What are some potential complications of untreated hypertension?; Untreated hypertension may lead to coronary thrombosis or embolism, cerebral thrombosis, embolism, or hemorrhage, potentially resulting in a transient ischemic attack (TIA, ministroke) or a cerebral vascular accident (CVA, stroke). What are some preventive measures for hypertension?; Preventive measures for hypertension include maintaining a healthy diet and weight, regular exercise, and limiting sodium intake. What are some treatments for hypertension?; Treatments for hypertension include diuretics and sympathetic inhibitors. What is venous blood flow?; Venous blood flow is the movement of blood through the veins, which is only partly a direct result of heart action and also dependent on skeletal muscle contraction, breathing movements, and vasoconstriction of veins. What factors contribute to venous blood flow?; Venous blood flow is dependent on skeletal muscle contraction, breathing movements, and vasoconstriction of veins, in addition to being partly influenced by heart action. Why does blood pressure decrease as blood moves through the arterial system into the capillary network?; Blood pressure decreases as blood moves through the arterial system into the capillary network because the arterial system's resistance dissipates the pressure, leaving little pressure at the venous ends of the capillaries. What is central venous pressure?; Pressure in the right atrium is called central venous pressure. What happens when central venous pressure increases?; An increase in central venous pressure causes blood to back up into the peripheral veins, which can lead to peripheral edema. How does a weakly beating heart affect central venous pressure?; A weakly beating heart increases central venous pressure. What factors can increase blood flow to the right atrium and thus increase central venous pressure?; An increase in blood volume or venoconstriction increases blood flow to the right atrium, which increases central venous pressure. How does central venous pressure affect peripheral veins?; Central venous pressure affects pressure within the peripheral veins. What is the effect of regular aerobic exercise on the heart's pumping efficiency?; Regular aerobic exercise increases the heart's pumping efficiency. How does regular aerobic exercise affect blood volume and hemoglobin concentration?; Regular aerobic exercise increases blood volume and hemoglobin concentration. What changes occur in the number of mitochondria due to regular aerobic exercise?; The number of mitochondria increases due to regular aerobic exercise. By how much can the heart enlarge due to regular aerobic exercise?; The heart may enlarge by 40% or more due to regular aerobic exercise. What happens to stroke volume as a result of regular aerobic exercise?; Stroke volume increases as a result of regular aerobic exercise. How does regular aerobic exercise affect heart rate and blood pressure?; Regular aerobic exercise decreases heart rate and blood pressure. To benefit the cardiovascular system, to what percentage of maximum should heart rate increase during exercise?; Heart rate should increase to 70 to 85% of maximum during exercise to benefit the cardiovascular system. How long should exercise sessions last to benefit the cardiovascular system?; Exercise sessions should last 30 to 60 minutes to benefit the cardiovascular system. How frequently should one exercise per week to benefit the cardiovascular system?; One should exercise at least 3 to 4 times per week to benefit the cardiovascular system. What is the pulmonary circuit?; The pulmonary circuit is the pathway of blood vessels that carries blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. What is the systemic circuit?; The systemic circuit is the pathway of blood vessels that carries blood from the heart to the rest of the body and back to the heart. What is the Pulmonary Circuit?; The Pulmonary Circuit involves the right ventricle → pulmonary trunk → right and left pulmonary arteries → lobar branches, repeated divisions → pulmonary arterioles → pulmonary capillaries → pulmonary venules and veins → left atrium. What is the oxygen and carbon dioxide content in blood within the pulmonary arteries and arterioles?; Blood in pulmonary arteries and arterioles is low in O2 and high in CO2. Where does gas exchange occur in the pulmonary circuit?; Gas exchange occurs in pulmonary (alveolar) capillaries. What is the oxygen and carbon dioxide content in blood within the pulmonary venules and veins?; Blood in pulmonary venules and veins is rich in O2 and low in CO2. What is the Systemic Circuit?; The Systemic Circuit involves oxygen-rich blood moving from the left atrium to the left ventricle, and contraction of the left ventricle sends blood into the systemic circuit: left ventricle → aorta → all arteries and arterioles leading to body tissues → systemic capillaries → systemic venules and veins → right atrium. What effect does high osmotic pressure in interstitial fluid have on alveoli?; High osmotic pressure in interstitial fluid draws water out of alveoli. What is the largest artery in the body?; The aorta is the largest artery in the body. What is the function of the aorta?; The aorta supplies blood to all of the systemic arteries. What organ is supplied by the right and left coronary arteries?; Heart What region is supplied by the celiac artery?; Organs of upper digestive tract What regions are supplied by the brachiocephalic trunk?; Right upper limb, right side of head What organ is supplied by the phrenic artery?; Diaphragm What region is supplied by the left common carotid artery?; Left side of head What regions are supplied by the superior mesenteric artery?; Portions of small and large intestines What region is supplied by the left subclavian artery?; Left upper limb What organ is supplied by the suprarenal artery?; Adrenal gland What organ is supplied by the renal artery?; Kidney What organ is supplied by the bronchial artery?; Bronchi What organ is supplied by the gonadal artery?; Ovary or testis What organ is supplied by the pericardial artery?; Pericardium What regions are supplied by the inferior mesenteric artery?; Lower portions of large intestine What organ is supplied by the esophageal artery?; Esophagus What region is supplied by the lumbar artery?; Posterior abdominal wall What region is supplied by the mediastinal artery?; Mediastinum What regions are supplied by the middle sacral artery?; Sacrum and coccyx What region is supplied by the posterior intercostal artery?; Thoracic wall What regions are supplied by the common iliac artery?; Lower abdominal wall, pelvic organs, and lower limb What are the major vessels associated with the heart?; The major vessels associated with the heart include the aorta, pulmonary arteries, pulmonary veins, and the superior and inferior vena cava. What is the function of the aorta?; The aorta is the main artery that carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle of the heart to the rest of the body. What role do the pulmonary arteries play in blood circulation?; The pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs for oxygenation. What is the function of the pulmonary veins?; The pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the left atrium of the heart. What is the role of the superior vena cava?; The superior vena cava returns deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the right atrium of the heart. What is the function of the inferior vena cava?; The inferior vena cava returns deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the right atrium of the heart. What are the major branches of the abdominal aorta?; The major branches of the abdominal aorta include the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, inferior mesenteric artery, renal arteries, and gonadal arteries. What arteries supply blood to the brain, head, and neck?; Branches of the subclavian and common carotid arteries supply blood to the brain, head, and neck. What is the cerebral arterial circle (circle of Willis)?; The cerebral arterial circle (circle of Willis) is a ring-like arterial structure located at the base of the brain that joins the carotid and vertebral artery systems, providing alternate pathways for blood to reach the brain. What is the function of the cerebral arteries that emerge from the circle of Willis?; The cerebral arteries that emerge from the circle of Willis supply blood to brain tissues. What artery gives off branches in the neck and continues into the arm?; The subclavian artery gives off branches in the neck and then continues into the arm. What arteries supply blood to the thoracic wall?; Blood reaches the thoracic wall via branches of several vessels, including the subclavian artery and the thoracic aorta. What does the abdominal aorta divide into?; The abdominal aorta divides into the common iliac arteries, which supply blood to the pelvic organs, gluteal region, and lower limbs. What areas does the common iliac artery supply blood to?; The common iliac artery supplies blood to the pelvic organs, gluteal region, and lower limbs. Into which arteries does the common iliac artery divide?; The common iliac artery divides into the internal iliac artery and external iliac artery. What areas does the internal iliac artery supply blood to?; The internal iliac artery supplies blood to the pelvic and gluteal areas. What arteries provide the major blood supply to the lower limbs?; The external iliac arteries provide the major blood supply to the lower limbs. What is the primary function of the venous system?; The primary function of the venous system is to return deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart. What are veins?; Veins are blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart. What is the role of venules in the venous system?; Venules are small vessels that collect blood from capillaries and transport it to larger veins. What is the significance of valves in veins?; Valves in veins prevent the backflow of blood and ensure it flows in one direction towards the heart. How does the venous system contribute to blood circulation?; The venous system collects deoxygenated blood from the body and returns it to the heart, completing the circulation loop. What is a key difference between veins and arteries?; Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart, while arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart. What does the systemic venous circulation do?; Systemic venous circulation returns blood to the heart after the exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes between blood and cells. How do vessels of the venous system originate?; Vessels of the venous system originate from the merging of capillaries into venules, venules into small veins, and small veins into larger ones. Why are venous pathways difficult to follow?; Venous pathways are difficult to follow due to irregular networks and unnamed tributaries. How do pathways of larger veins usually compare to arteries?; Pathways of larger veins usually parallel arteries of the same name. Into what do all systemic veins converge?; All systemic veins converge into the superior and inferior venae cavae, and return to the heart through the right atrium. What do the external jugular veins drain blood from?; The external jugular veins drain blood from the face, scalp, and superficial neck. What do the internal jugular veins drain blood from?; The internal jugular veins drain blood from the brain, and deep portions of the face and neck. What are the two systems of veins that drain the upper limb and shoulder?; The two systems of veins that drain the upper limb and shoulder are the deep set of veins and the superficial set of veins. What is the pathway of the deep set of veins in the upper limb?; The pathway of the deep set of veins in the upper limb is: Digital veins → radial and ulnar veins → brachial veins. What is the pathway of the superficial set of veins in the upper limb?; The pathway of the superficial set of veins in the upper limb is: Anastomoses in palm and wrist → basilic and cephalic veins. Which vein does the basilic vein join?; The basilic vein joins the brachial vein. Which vein does the cephalic vein join?; The cephalic vein joins the axillary vein. What veins drain the abdominal and thoracic walls?; The abdominal and thoracic walls are drained by tributaries of the brachiocephalic and azygos veins. Where does the azygos vein drain directly into?; The azygos vein drains directly into the superior vena cava. What is the hepatic portal system?; The hepatic portal system is a unique venous pathway that drains blood from the abdominal viscera (stomach, intestines, pancreas, and spleen) into the hepatic portal vein, which transports it to the liver for processing before it is delivered to the inferior vena cava. What is the function of the hepatic portal vein?; The hepatic portal vein transports blood from the capillaries in the stomach, intestines, pancreas, and spleen to the liver for processing before it is delivered to the inferior vena cava. What is a portal system?; A portal system filters blood through two sets of capillaries instead of the usual one set. What is the Hepatic Portal System?; The Hepatic Portal System is a portal system that filters blood through two sets of capillaries in the liver. What is the Renal Portal System?; The Renal Portal System is a portal system that filters blood through two sets of capillaries in the kidneys. What is the pathway of deep veins from the foot to the pelvis?; The deep veins pathway from the foot to the pelvis is: veins in the foot → anterior and posterior tibial veins → popliteal vein → femoral vein → external iliac vein. What is the pathway of superficial veins from the foot to the pelvis?; The superficial veins pathway from the foot to the pelvis is: veins in the foot → small and great saphenous veins. Which vein is the longest in the body?; The great saphenous vein is the longest vein in the body. What is cholesterol deposition in blood vessels?; Cholesterol deposition in blood vessels refers to the accumulation of cholesterol along the walls of blood vessels, which can lead to narrowing and potential blockage. What happens to coronary arteries as people age?; Coronary arteries may narrow as people age, which can reduce blood flow to the heart and increase the risk of heart disease. How can the heart change in size due to disease?; The heart may shrink slightly or enlarge due to disease, such as cardiomyopathy or heart failure. What happens to the proportion of the heart consisting of cardiac muscle with age?; The proportion of the heart consisting of cardiac muscle declines with age. What type of tissue increases in the heart with age?; There is an increase in fibrous connective tissue in the heart with age. What happens to the amount of adipose tissue in the heart as people age?; The amount of adipose tissue in the heart increases as people age. What changes occur in the heart valves and left ventricular wall with age?; The heart valves and left ventricular wall may thicken with age. What happens to systolic blood pressure as people age?; Systolic blood pressure tends to increase as people age. What happens to the resting heart rate with age?; The resting heart rate tends to decrease with age. What changes occur in the lumens of large arteries with age?; The lumens of large arteries narrow, and the arterial walls thicken with age. What happens to arterial elasticity with age?; Arterial elasticity decreases with age. What is Marfan syndrome?; Marfan syndrome is a connective tissue defect involving an abnormal type of the protein fibrillin, which can weaken the wall of the aorta and potentially result in the bursting of the aorta and sudden death. What is Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?; Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is an inherited overgrowth of myocardium caused by an abnormal myosin chain in cardiac muscle, which can result in sudden death. What happens due to an inherited deficiency of a mitochondrial enzyme that breaks down fatty acids?; Heart failure results from the inability to break down long-chain fatty acids and use them for energy, as cardiac muscle uses them as a primary energy source. What is Familial hypercholesterolemia?; Familial hypercholesterolemia is a condition where abnormal LDL (low-density lipoprotein) receptors on liver cells do not take up cholesterol from the blood, resulting in high cholesterol and coronary artery disease. What is Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)?; Disease involving deposition of cholesterol plaque on inner walls of coronary arteries, leading to obstruction of coronary arteries and oxygen deficiency in cardiac muscle. Often accompanied by high serum cholesterol and hypertension, and can cause chest pain upon exertion (angina pectoris). It is a major contributing factor to myocardial infarction (heart attack). What is angina pectoris?; Pain in the chest upon exertion, often associated with coronary artery disease. What are two common treatments for Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)?; Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) and coronary bypass surgery. Where is the aortic valve best heard?; The aortic valve is best heard in the second intercostal space right of the sternum. Where is the pulmonary valve best heard?; The pulmonary valve is best heard in the second intercostal space left of the sternum. Where is the tricuspid valve best heard?; The tricuspid valve is best heard at the fifth intercostal space left of the sternum. Where is the mitral valve best heard?; The mitral valve is best heard in the fifth intercostal space on the left at the nipple line. Where can the pulse be taken for the temporal artery?; The pulse for the temporal artery can be taken anterior to the ear. Where can the pulse be taken for the carotid artery?; The pulse for the carotid artery can be taken in the inferior medial portion of the neck. Where can the pulse be taken for the brachial artery?; The pulse for the brachial artery can be taken in the distal brachial region on the anterior side. Where can the pulse be taken for the radial artery?; The pulse for the radial artery can be taken on the lateral side of the wrist on the anterior side. Where can the pulse be taken for the femoral artery?; The pulse for the femoral artery can be taken in the inguinal region. Where can the pulse be taken for the popliteal artery?; The pulse for the popliteal artery can be taken in the popliteal region. Where can the pulse be taken for the dorsalis pedis artery?; The pulse for the dorsalis pedis artery can be taken in the anterior ankle. Where can the pulse be taken for the posterior tibia artery?; The pulse for the posterior tibia artery can be taken in the posterior ankle. What are the functions of the organs of the cardiovascular system?; The organs of the cardiovascular system function to transport nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to cells throughout the body and removal of metabolic wastes (carbon dioxide, nitrogenous wastes). What are the coverings of the heart?; The heart is covered by the pericardium, which consists of an outer fibrous pericardium and an inner serous pericardium. The serous pericardium is further divided into the parietal and visceral layers. What are the layers that compose the wall of the heart?; The wall of the heart is composed of three layers: the epicardium (outer layer), the myocardium (middle muscular layer), and the endocardium (inner layer). What are the major parts of the heart and their functions?; The major parts of the heart include the atria (receive blood), ventricles (pump blood out), valves (prevent backflow), septum (divides left and right sides), and coronary arteries (supply blood to the heart muscle). What is the pathway of blood through the heart?; Blood flows from the body into the right atrium, then to the right ventricle, through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs, back to the left atrium via pulmonary veins, into the left ventricle, and out to the body through the aorta. What is coronary circulation?; Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the blood vessels of the heart muscle (myocardium) through the coronary arteries and veins. What is the cardiac cycle?; The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events in one heartbeat, including systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation) of the atria and ventricles. How are heart sounds produced?; Heart sounds are produced by the closing of the heart valves. The 'lub' sound is caused by the closure of the AV valves, and the 'dub' sound is caused by the closure of the semilunar valves. What are the parts of a normal ECG pattern?; A normal ECG pattern includes the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave. The P wave represents atrial depolarization, the QRS complex represents ventricular depolarization, and the T wave represents ventricular repolarization. What is the significance of a normal ECG pattern?; A normal ECG pattern is significant because it indicates the proper electrical activity of the heart, which is essential for effective cardiac function and rhythm. How is the cardiac cycle controlled?; The cardiac cycle is controlled by the sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node, bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers, which coordinate the timing and sequence of heart muscle contractions. What are the major types of blood vessels and their functions?; The major types of blood vessels are arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins return blood to the heart, and capillaries facilitate the exchange of substances between blood and tissues. How are substances exchanged between blood in capillaries and tissue fluid?; Substances are exchanged between blood in capillaries and tissue fluid through diffusion, osmosis, and filtration, allowing nutrients, oxygen, and waste products to move between the blood and surrounding tissues. How is blood pressure produced?; Blood pressure is produced by the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels, primarily generated by the heart's pumping action and influenced by factors such as blood volume and vessel elasticity. How is blood pressure controlled?; Blood pressure is controlled by mechanisms including the autonomic nervous system, hormones like adrenaline and angiotensin, and the kidneys' regulation of blood volume. What mechanisms aid in returning venous blood to the heart?; Mechanisms that aid in returning venous blood to the heart include the skeletal muscle pump, respiratory pump, and venous valves, which prevent backflow and help propel blood towards the heart. What is the pulmonary circuit of the cardiovascular system?; The pulmonary circuit is the pathway in the cardiovascular system that carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs for oxygenation and then returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart. What is the systemic circuit of the cardiovascular system?; The systemic circuit is the pathway in the cardiovascular system that carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle of the heart to the rest of the body and returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the heart. What are the major arteries in the cardiovascular system?; The major arteries in the cardiovascular system include the aorta, carotid arteries, subclavian arteries, renal arteries, and iliac arteries. What are the major veins in the cardiovascular system?; The major veins in the cardiovascular system include the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, jugular veins, subclavian veins, and iliac veins. What are some lifespan changes in the cardiovascular system?; Lifespan changes in the cardiovascular system include thickening of the heart walls, reduced elasticity of blood vessels, increased blood pressure, and a higher risk of cardiovascular diseases.