US History ACC Chapter 25-28

Chapter 25 -

25.1. Analyze the U.S. attempt to remain neutral during the 1930s, specifically the Neutrality Act of 1937 and FDR’s “good neighbor” policy. 

U.S. Neutrality in the 1930s

• Roosevelt the Reluctant Isolationist
  
  

  • FDR wanted to stay out of European conflicts due to:
    
    

    • The Great Depression (economic focus at home)
      
      

    • Public disillusionment from WWI
      
      

    • Rise of fascism (Italy, Germany), communism (Russia), and aggression (Japan in Asia)
      
      

• Isolationist Sentiment Grows
  
  

  • Many Americans believed WWI was caused by profit-seeking "merchants of death" (weapons makers, bankers) — Nye Committee Report (1933)
    
    

  • Result: Congress passed several Neutrality Acts (1935–1937)
    
    

 Neutrality Act of 1937

• Aimed to keep the U.S. out of foreign wars
  
  

• Prohibited:
  
  

  • Loans and sale of weapons to nations at war
    
    

• Established:
  
  

  • “Cash-and-carry” policy:
    
    

    • Warring nations could buy nonmilitary goods
      
      

    • Had to pay cash and transport goods in their own ships
      
      

• Impact:
  
  

  • Boosted U.S. economy
    
    

  • Still helped aggressors (e.g. Germany, Italy) by supplying goods
    
    

  • Undermined long-term peace
    
    

 FDR’s “Good Neighbor” Policy (1933)

• Announced a shift in U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America
  
  

• Key principle: No intervention in other nations’ internal or external affairs
  
  

 Military Nonintervention

• U.S. refrained from using military to defend American corporate interests
  
  

  • Example: Mexico nationalized American oil (no U.S. troops sent)
    
    

  • U.S. withdrew Marines from Haiti (1934)
    
    

• Honored national self-determination, but...
  
  

  • Allowed dictators to rise (e.g., Nicaragua, Cuba)
    
    

  • Some gained private U.S. business support
    
    

 Economic Influence Remained

• U.S. still used economic power in the region
  
  

• 1934: Congress allowed tariff reductions for countries that lowered tariffs on U.S. goods
  
  

• By 1940: 22 Latin American countries agreed → U.S. exports doubled
  
  

• Boosted hemispheric solidarity and U.S. economy

25.2. Show how the Spanish Civil War characterizes the international dynamics of the 1930s prior to WWII. 

Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)

• Conflict between:
  
  

  • Nationalists (fascist rebels, led by General Francisco Franco)
    
    

  • Republican Loyalists (democratically elected government)
    
    

 International Involvement

• Germany & Italy:
  
  

  • Supported Franco (Nationalists) with troops, weapons, and supplies
    
    

  • Demonstrated fascist solidarity and growing militarism in Europe
    
    

• Soviet Union:
  
  

  • Gave limited aid to the Republicans
    
    

  • Showed communist opposition to fascism
    
    

• Western Democracies (U.S., Britain, France):
  
  

  • Refused official aid to Republican Loyalists
    
    

  • Chose neutrality over intervention, despite fascist aggression
    
    

• United States:
  
  

  • Maintained official neutrality
    
    

  • Over 3,000 American volunteers joined the Abraham Lincoln Brigade to fight fascism
    
    

  • U.S. government gave no official support
    
    

 Reflections of 1930s International Dynamics

• Rise of Fascism:
  
  

  • Italy and Germany used the Spanish Civil War as a testing ground for military weapons and tactics
    
    

  • Emboldened fascist powers ahead of WWII
    
    

• Weakness of Democracies:
  
  

  • Western democracies failed to take a stand
    
    

  • Their inaction encouraged future aggression by fascist regimes
    
    

• Isolationism vs. Moral Responsibility:
  
  

  • Roosevelt warned of a growing “epidemic of world lawlessness”
    
    

  • Frustrated by American isolationist mindset
    
    

  • Privately admitted the challenge of leading a reluctant nation
    
    

• Foreshadowing WWII:
  
  

  • Spanish Civil War became a preview of global ideological conflict
    
    

  • Set the stage for fascist expansion and democratic hesitation leading into WWII

25.3. Demonstrate how the events in the interwar years will lead Europe on the road to war again. 

 Legacy of World War I and the Treaty of Versailles

• Versailles Treaty (1919):
  
  

  • Left Germany humiliated and economically burdened (war guilt + $33 billion reparations)
    
    

  • Germans felt betrayed and angry → fueled desire for revenge
    
    

• Italy & Japan felt ignored and humiliated by peace settlement
  
  

  • Desired empires and expansion to assert global power
    
    

 Rise of Aggressive Dictatorships

• Germany: Hitler (1933) rose to power; vowed to restore German strength and territory
  
  

• Italy: Mussolini wanted an African empire
  
  

• Japan: Militarized government invaded Manchuria (1931) and Nanjing (1937)
  
  

• All three powers aimed to expand empires through military aggression
  
  

 Key Events on the Road to War

1. Remilitarization of the Rhineland (March 1936)
   
   

   • Hitler violated Versailles Treaty by sending troops to Rhineland
     
     

   • France & Britain did nothing in response
     
     

2. Italy invades Ethiopia (1936)
   
   

   • Demonstrated fascist aggression unchecked by global powers
     
     

3. Germany annexes Austria (Anschluss, 1938)
   
   

   • First major step in Hitler’s territorial expansion
     
     

4. Czechoslovakia and the Sudetenland (1938)
   
   

   • Hitler demanded the Sudetenland (German-speaking region)
     
     

   • Munich Pact: Britain and France appeased Hitler, giving him Sudetenland in exchange for his promise to stop further expansion
     
     

   • Hitler broke his promise and took the rest of Czechoslovakia (1939)
     
     

5. Nonaggression Pact (Aug 1939)
   
   

   • Nazi-Soviet Pact between Germany and USSR
     
     

   • Secretly divided Poland between them
     
     

   • Prevented USSR from allying with Britain and France
     
     

Outbreak of WWII

• September 1, 1939: Germany invaded Poland (blitzkrieg or “lightning war”)
  
  

• Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland
  
  

• September 3, 1939: Britain and France declared war on Germany
  → World War II began
  
  

 Failure of Appeasement and Democratic Response

• Britain and France repeatedly chose appeasement over confrontation
  
  

  • Believed avoiding war was better than resisting Hitler
    
    

• The U.S. remained isolationist, focused on the Depression and staying out of foreign wars
  
  

25.4. Recognize how appeasement toward Germany’s actions in Europe will led to WWII. 

 Appeasement Policy and Its Failure

• 1938: Munich Pact
  
  

  • British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain gave Hitler the Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia)
    
    

  • Condition: Hitler would stop further expansion
    
    

  • Goal: Avoid another war (appeasement)
    
    

  • Result: Hitler broke his promise — he took the rest of Czechoslovakia by 1939
    
    

• Effect of Appeasement
  
  

  • Convinced Hitler that Western democracies were weak
    
    

  • Encouraged further aggression and expansion
    
    

 Nazi-Soviet Pact (August 1939)

• Germany and USSR agreed not to attack each other
  
  

• Secretly agreed to divide Poland
  
  

• Prevented Soviet alliance with Britain and France
  
  

• Gave Hitler the confidence to invade Poland without fear of a two-front war
  
  

 Germany Invades Poland (September 1, 1939)

• Hitler launched a blitzkrieg (“lightning war”) on Poland
  
  

• Ordered troops to act with brutality and mass violence
  
  

• Soviet Union invaded from the east shortly after
  
  

• Britain and France responded:
  
  

  • Declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939
    
    

  • Start of World War II
    
    

 Wider Impact of Appeasement

• Hitler’s confidence grew after Poland:
  
  

  • Launched further invasions in 1940: Denmark, Norway, Netherlands, Belgium, France
    
    

  • Trapped 300,000 Allied soldiers at Dunkirk (rescued by boat evacuation)
    
    

• France surrendered by June 1940
  
  

  • Installed Vichy government, a Nazi-collaborating regime
    
    

• Hitler appeared unstoppable, controlling much of Western Europe
  
  

 Battle of Britain (Mid-1940)

• Hitler turned to bombing Britain
  
  

• Winston Churchill vowed never to surrender
  
  

• Royal Air Force (RAF) held off German attacks
  
  

  • Radar and decoded messages gave British pilots an edge
    
    

• Britain won the battle by November 1940 → Hitler’s first major defeat
  
  

25.5. Identify the significance of Germany’s invasion of Poland in 1939. 

Germany Invades Poland – September 1, 1939

• Hitler launched a blitzkrieg ("lightning war") against Poland
  
  

  • Ordered brutality: kill all Polish people without mercy
    
    

• Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland days later under the Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact
  
  

  • Poland was crushed from both sides
    
    

 Immediate Significance

• Start of World War II:
  
  

  • Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939
    
    

  • Official beginning of WWII in Europe
    
    

• End of Appeasement:
  
  

  • Poland invasion proved Hitler would not stop at diplomacy
    
    

  • Britain and France realized appeasement had failed
    
    

 Broader Impact

• Rapid German Expansion:
  
  

  • Poland fell quickly → Germany seemed unstoppable
    
    

  • Launched further invasions in 1940: Denmark, Norway, Netherlands, Belgium, France
    
    

• France’s Collapse:
  
  

  • By mid-1940, France had surrendered
    
    

  • Germany controlled most of Western Europe
    
    

• Britain Stands Alone:
  
  

  • Winston Churchill became PM, vowed to never surrender
    
    

  • Battle of Britain (mid-1940): Germany’s first defeat

25.6. Explain the workings of the 1941 Lend-Lease Act, “cash-carry” policy, and Atlantic Charter. 

 “Cash-and-Carry” Policy (1937 & Revised 1939)

• Part of Neutrality Acts to keep the U.S. out of war
  
  

• Allowed warring nations to:
  
  

  • Buy nonmilitary goods (1937) or arms (1939)
    
    

  • Only if they paid cash and used their own ships
    
    

• Goal: Avoid American entanglement while still aiding allies
  
  

• Benefited Britain and France but not Germany (who lacked naval access)
  
  

 Lend-Lease Act (1941)

• Proposed by FDR in January 1941
  
  

• Allowed Britain and later the Soviet Union to receive U.S. military aid without paying up front
  
  

  • Instead, promised to return or repay after the war
    
    

• Roosevelt justified it by referencing the Four Freedoms:
  
  

  • Freedom of speech
    
    

  • Freedom of religion
    
    

  • Freedom from want
    
    

  • Freedom from fear
    
    

• Isolationists criticized it as a step toward war
  
  

• Over $50 billion in aid was sent — making the U.S. the “arsenal of democracy”
  
  

 Atlantic Charter (August 1941)

• FDR and Churchill met secretly off Newfoundland
  
  

• They agreed on shared democratic goals for the postwar world:
  
  

  • Freedom of the seas
    
    

  • Free trade
    
    

  • Right of nations to self-determination (choose their own government)
    
    

• Signaled strong U.S.-British cooperation even before the U.S. entered the war
  
  

25.7. Understand the significance of the 1941 Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, and why it backfired for Japan in the long run. 

Significance of the Attack:

• December 7, 1941: Japanese planes launched a surprise attack on the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor
  
  

• Hit all of the fleet’s battleships; over 2,400 Americans were killed
  
  

• Attack was meant to destroy American naval power in the Pacific and prevent U.S. interference in Japan’s expansion
  
  

Why It Backfired for Japan:

• Although a tactical victory, the attack was a strategic failure
  
  

• United States declared war on Japan, ending American isolationism
  
  

• U.S. mobilized fully for war, joining the Allies in WWII
  
  

• Led to major advancements in American air power and weaponry (e.g., B-29 Super Fortress, atomic bomb)
  
  

• Paul Tibbets, American pilot, later led the mission to drop the atomic bomb on Hiroshima
  
  

• The war escalated, and Japan ultimately suffered devastating defeats, including atomic bombings in 1945
  
  

• Japan’s attack united the American public and government against them, ensuring long-term retaliation and eventual defeat
  
  

25.8. Analyze the internment of Japanese-Americans during World War II. 

• Executive Order 9066 (Feb 1942): Ordered by President Roosevelt to remove all Japanese Americans from the West Coast
  
  

• Internment camps: Over 110,000 Japanese Americans sent to 10 makeshift prison camps in remote areas of the West and South
  
  

• Losses: Families were given little time to sell homes or businesses; estimated $400 million in property lost
  
  

• Conditions: Barbed wire, armed guards, harsh living environments
  
  

• Military service: Several thousand Japanese Americans still served honorably in the U.S. military
  
  

• No evidence of disloyalty: No cases of Japanese American subversion were ever found
  
  

• Korematsu v. United States (1944): Supreme Court upheld internment, claiming “military necessity” despite the clear violation of constitutional rights

25.9. Describe and understand how the war was fought on the home front, especially in terms of rationing, censorship, and propaganda. 

• War Production & Industry Changes
  
  

  • Factories shifted from consumer goods to war materials
    
    

  • War Production Board set production priorities
    
    

  • Business leaders ran new government agencies to oversee war production
    
    

  • U.S. outproduced Axis Powers (more than double their combined output)
    
    

• Labor and Workforce
  
  

  • Government encouraged unions not to strike during the war
    
    

  • Ensured steady production of war supplies
    
    

• Military Draft
  
  

  • Selective Service Act (1940): all military-age men required to register
    
    

  • Created a large and ready military force
    
    

• Rationing (implied)
  
  

  • While not explicitly listed, rationing supported the shift of resources to war production
    
    

  • Citizens limited consumption of goods like gasoline, meat, and rubber
    
    

• Censorship & Propaganda (implied)
  
  

  • Government likely used propaganda to encourage unity, war bonds, and enlistment
    
    

  • Censorship helped control information and maintain morale on the home front

25.10. Identify the roles and contributions of American women to the home-front war effort. 

Workforce Contributions

• Government ads urged women to take industrial and factory jobs
  
  

• “Rosie the Riveter” became a symbol of working women
  
  

• Millions worked in defense industries — welding, assembling airplanes, etc.
  
  

• Women entered jobs traditionally held by men
  
  

• Women workers increased by 50% compared to 1939
  
  

Economic Impact

• Women earned wages (e.g., $32/week in munitions plant vs. men’s $54)
  
  

• Factory jobs offered new economic independence
  
  

• Helped pull many families out of Depression-era poverty
  
  

Support from Home

• Most married women stayed at home, but still contributed by:
  
  

  • Planting Victory Gardens
    
    

  • Recycling tin cans, newspapers
    
    

  • Buying war bonds
    
    

  • Practicing rationing (tires, shoes, gasoline, meat)
    
    

Cultural and Social Shifts

• Women's roles challenged traditional gender norms
  
  

• Wartime ads claimed domestic skills prepared women for industrial work
  
  

• War created greater awareness of equality and human rights, influencing later civil rights and women’s movements

25.11. Explain the Double V campaign of African-Americans. 

Definition & Purpose

• Double V = Victory at Home, Victory Abroad
  
  

• Slogan from the Pittsburgh Courier (Black newspaper)
  
  

• Aimed to defeat fascism overseas and racism at home
  
  

• Exposed contradiction of fighting Nazi white supremacy while facing racism in the U.S.
  
  

Support & Organizations

• Supported by the NAACP
  
  

• Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) founded in 1942
  
  

  • Used pickets and sit-ins to challenge segregation
    
    

Government Response

• In 1941, A. Philip Randolph threatened a march on Washington
  
  

• Resulted in Executive Order 8802:
  
  

  • Banned racial discrimination in defense industries
    
    

  • Created the Committee on Fair Employment Practices
    
    

Economic Impact

• 5.5 million Black Americans migrated North and West for war jobs
  
  

• Black unemployment dropped by 80%
  
  

• Still faced lower wages and job discrimination
  
  

  • By war’s end, Black families earned only half of what white families earned
    
    

Social Impact & Racial Tensions

• Migration led to racial tensions and riots
  
  

  • 1943 Detroit race riot: 25 Black and 9 white Americans killed
    
    

• Campaign highlighted hypocrisy of American democracy
  
  

Success & Limitations

• Raised awareness of racial injustice
  
  

• Achieved limited success in ending discrimination during the war
  
  

• Helped lay groundwork for postwar Civil Rights Movement

25.12. Clarify the significance of the military encounters that brought an end to WWII in Europe.

D-Day (June 6, 1944)

• Allied forces launched a massive invasion on the beaches of Normandy, France
  
  

• Marked the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi control
  
  

• Opened a Western Front, forcing Germany to fight a two-front war (East and West)
  
  

Battle of the Bulge (Dec 1944 – Jan 1945)

• Germany’s last major offensive in Western Europe
  
  

• Took place in Belgium and Luxembourg
  
  

• Allies pushed back the Germans, depleting their forces
  
  

• Marked the beginning of the end for Nazi Germany
  
  

Soviet Advance from the East

• Soviet Red Army pushed westward through Eastern Europe
  
  

• Liberated countries like Poland and reached Berlin in April 1945
  
  

• Brutal and fast-moving advance trapped Germany from the east
  
  

Fall of Berlin (April–May 1945)

• Final major battle in Europe
  
  

• Soviets captured Berlin
  
  

• Adolf Hitler committed suicide in his bunker on April 30, 1945
  
  

Germany’s Surrender (May 7–8, 1945)

• Germany unconditionally surrendered on May 7, 1945
  
  

• May 8 celebrated as V-E Day (Victory in Europe Day)
  
  

Significance

• Key military encounters weakened German forces, forced retreat
  
  

• Two-front pressure (U.S./Britain in West, Soviets in East) led to collapse
  
  

• End of war in Europe allowed Allies to focus on defeating Japan in the Pacific

25.13. Understand the relationship among the “Big Three” (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) and how the conferences and subsequent agreements helped shape international politics during and after WWII. 

The “Big Three” Leaders

• Franklin D. Roosevelt (U.S.)
  
  

• Winston Churchill (Britain)
  
  

• Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)
  
  

• Allies during WWII, but had different political ideologies and postwar goals
  
  

  • U.S./Britain = democracy and capitalism
    
    

  • Soviet Union = communism and authoritarian rule
    
    

Major Conferences

1. Tehran Conference (Nov–Dec 1943)
   
   

   • First meeting of the Big Three
     
     

   • Agreed on launching a second front in Western Europe (D-Day)
     
     

   • Stalin agreed to join the war against Japan after Germany’s defeat
     
     

2. Yalta Conference (Feb 1945)
   
   

   • Discussed postwar Europe and Germany’s occupation
     
     

   • Agreed to divide Germany into 4 occupation zones (U.S., U.K., USSR, France)
     
     

   • Promised free elections in Eastern Europe (which Stalin later ignored)
     
     

   • Stalin reaffirmed promise to fight Japan
     
     

   • Created plans for the United Nations
     
     

3. Potsdam Conference (July 1945)
   
   

   • Held after Germany’s surrender; Truman replaced Roosevelt
     
     

   • Tensions rising between U.S. and USSR
     
     

   • Finalized division of Germany and issued a warning to Japan (Potsdam Declaration)
     
     

   • Disagreements over Eastern Europe marked the beginning of the Cold War
     
     

Impact on International Politics

• Agreements set the stage for postwar peacekeeping (UN)
  
  

• But ideological differences led to increasing tension between U.S. and USSR
  
  

• Disagreements over Eastern Europe, Germany, and democracy vs. communism fueled the Cold War
  
  

• The wartime alliance dissolved quickly after the war, replaced by mutual suspicion

25.14. Explain the importance of the Battle of Midway to the war in the Pacific. 

Battle of Midway (June 1942)

• Led by Admiral Chester W. Nimitz
  
  

• Major turning point in the Pacific War
  
  

• Japan lost 4 aircraft carriers, U.S. lost 1
  
  

• Reversed the balance of naval power in the Pacific in favor of the U.S.
  
  

• Stopped Japanese expansion and put Japan on the defensive
  
  

Significance

• First major decisive victory for the U.S. in the Pacific
  
  

• Crippled Japan’s ability to launch future offensive naval operations
  
  

• Allowed the U.S. to begin its island-hopping strategy, advancing toward Japan
  
  

• Boosted American morale and confidence
  
  

• Marked a shift from defensive to offensive operations for the Allies in the Pacific

25.15. Describe the end of the Pacific theater of war, and the use of the atomic bomb.

Manhattan Project & Atomic Bomb Development

• Top-secret U.S. project to develop atomic weapons
  
  

• Los Alamos, New Mexico: site of successful test (July 1945)
  
  

• Scientists and engineers worked around the clock to build the bomb
  
  

Hiroshima (August 6, 1945)

• Bomb nicknamed “Little Boy” dropped by Enola Gay B-29 bomber
  
  

• Equivalent to 40 million pounds of TNT
  
  

• Devastated the city and killed tens of thousands instantly
  
  

Nagasaki (August 9, 1945)

• Second atomic bomb dropped by U.S.
  
  

• Caused massive destruction and additional casualties
  
  

Japan’s Surrender

• Japan surrendered on August 14, 1945, just five days after Nagasaki
  
  

• Marked the official end of World War II
  
  

• Known as V-J Day (Victory over Japan Day)
  
  

Significance

• Use of the atomic bomb brought a quick end to the war in the Pacific
  
  

• Avoided a potentially deadly U.S. invasion of Japan
  
  

• Began the nuclear age and raised long-term ethical and political debates
  
  

• Showed U.S. military dominance and influenced postwar diplomacy

25.16. Analyze the reasons why the US rose as a “superpower” after World War II

Economic Strength

• Wartime production ended the Great Depression
  
  

• Gross National Product (GNP) quadrupled since 1933
  
  

• U.S. economy became the strongest in the world
  
  

• Jobs in defense industries boosted employment and prosperity
  
  

• The GI Bill helped reintegrate veterans into the economy
  
  

Military Power

• Held a nuclear monopoly after the war
  
  

• Had a strong and modernized military
  
  

• U.S. mainland was immune from attack, unlike Europe and Asia
  
  

Global Leadership

• Led the reconstruction of Europe (Marshall Plan)
  
  

• Oversaw Japan’s political and economic recovery
  
  

• Took a leadership role in forming the United Nations
  
  

• Became the dominant Western nation in the postwar world
  
  

Contrast with Other Nations

• Germany and Japan were left in ruins
  
  

• Soviet Union lost over 27 million lives and faced heavy destruction
  
  

• China faced mass devastation and displacement
  
  

• Most of Europe and Asia lay in economic and social collapse
  
  

Political Influence

• Took a leading role in resisting global communism
  
  

• Abandoned isolationism in favor of global involvement
  
  

• Emerged as one of the two superpowers, alongside the USSR
  
  

• Became the "policeman of the free world" during the Cold War

Chapter 26:

26.1. Identify the key events that shaped the Cold War and the symbolic importance of the “iron curtain.” 

Prewar Mistrust

• U.S. and USSR had very different postwar visions
  
  

  • Stalin: wanted friendly (pro-Soviet) governments in Eastern Europe for security
    
    

  • Truman: promoted freedom, democracy, and capitalism
    
    

• U.S. demanded free elections in Eastern Europe; USSR resisted
  
  

Division of Germany (1946)

• Disagreement over Germany’s future led to its division into separate zones (East and West)
  
  

• Symbolized growing East-West divide
  
  

Key Events That Shaped the Cold War

• Stalin’s 1946 speech: claimed capitalism leads to war, signaling ideological hostility
  
  

• Churchill’s “Iron Curtain” Speech (March 1946)
  
  

  • Warned that an "iron curtain" had fallen across Europe
    
    

  • Highlighted Soviet control over Eastern Europe
    
    

  • Became a symbol of the divide between Western democracies and Eastern communist states
    
    

  • Marked a clear public statement of Cold War tensions
    
    

• George F. Kennan’s Containment Policy (Feb 1946)
  
  

  • Argued that Soviet expansionism must be met with firm resistance
    
    

  • U.S. should use “unalterable counterforce”
    
    

  • Strategy aimed to contain communism where it already existed, preventing its spread
    
    

Symbolic Importance of the “Iron Curtain”

• Represented the ideological and physical boundary dividing Europe
  
  

• Separated democratic Western Europe from communist Eastern Europe
  
  

• Became the most famous metaphor of the Cold War
  
  

• Highlighted the beginning of open hostility between the U.S. and the USSR

26.2. Explain George F. Kennan’s policy of “containment” of the Soviet Union. List specific components of the policy. 

Definition of Containment

• Developed by George F. Kennan (Feb 1946)
  
  

• U.S. strategy to stop the spread of Soviet influence and communism
  
  

• Belief: Soviet expansion driven by insecurity and Stalin’s need for control, not ideology
  
  

• U.S. should respond with “unalterable counterforce” to Soviet moves
  
  

• Goal: contain communism where it already exists, not roll it back
  
  

Key Components of the Policy

1. Military and Political Resistance
   
   

   • U.S. must resist Soviet advances through strength and unity with allies
     
     

   • Not aggressive warfare, but firm opposition
     
     

2. Economic Aid to Allies
   
   

   • Support struggling nations so they don’t fall to communism
     
     

   • Led to programs like the Marshall Plan (aid to rebuild Europe)
     
     

3. Long-Term Strategy
   
   

   • Kennan believed containment would lead to the gradual weakening or “mellowing” of Soviet power
     
     

   • Patience and consistency were key
     
     

4. Avoid Direct Conflict
   
   

   • Focused on avoiding World War III
     
     

   • Counter Soviet influence without provoking full-scale war
     
     

Impact

• Became the foundation of U.S. Cold War foreign policy
  
  

• Justified U.S. involvement in global conflicts (e.g., Korea, Vietnam)
  
  

• Rejected by some, like Henry Wallace, who urged diplomacy and understanding
  
  

  • Wallace was fired for criticizing the hardline stance
    
    

26.3. Describe the Truman Doctrine. 

Definition and Purpose

• Truman Doctrine (March 1947)
  
  

• U.S. policy to “support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.”
  
  

• A direct implementation of containment policy
  
  

• Aimed at stopping the spread of communism
  
  

Key Events Leading to the Doctrine

• Crises in Greece and Turkey
  
  

  • Britain could no longer support the Greek monarchy and Turkish resistance to Soviet pressure
    
    

  • Greece: fighting a leftist (communist) insurgency
    
    

  • Turkey: resisting Soviet territorial demands and influence
    
    

• Truman asked Congress for military and economic aid to both countries
  
  

• Used a fear-based approach to gain support:
  
  

  • Warned of a domino effect if Greece and Turkey fell to communism
    
    

  • Said it would lead to chaos throughout the Middle East and Europe
    
    

Impact and Legacy

• Congress approved aid, despite some liberal opposition
  
  

• Set a precedent for Cold War U.S. foreign policy
  
  

  • U.S. would support any government (even authoritarian) if it opposed communism
    
    

• Marked the start of active U.S. intervention in global conflicts
  
  

• Helped Truman win bipartisan support and secure re-election in 1948
  
  

26.4. Recognize the significance of the Marshall Plan and its impact on Europe. 

The Marshall Plan, officially called the European Recovery Program (ERP), was launched in 1948 and led by Secretary of State George C. Marshall. It provided $13 billion (about $151 billion in 2021 dollars) in aid to help rebuild the economies of sixteen Western European nations after the devastation of WWII.

Significance and Impact:

• Economic Recovery: The aid helped Western Europe recover quickly, preventing economic collapse and reducing the appeal of communism.
  
  

• Humanitarian & Political Goals: Aimed to both alleviate human suffering and contain communism by promoting stability through prosperity.
  
  

• Boosted U.S. Economy: European countries used U.S. aid to buy American goods, creating new markets for American businesses.
  
  

• Soviet Rejection: The Soviet Union and its Eastern European satellites rejected the plan, deepening the East-West divide.
  
  

• Start of European Unity: The requirement for recipient nations to work together laid the groundwork for the European Union.
  
  

Key Event Linked:

• In response to Western unity and efforts like the Marshall Plan, the Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin (1948–49), leading to the Berlin Airlift, where the U.S. and Britain airlifted 2.3 million tons of supplies until Stalin lifted the blockade.
  
  

Summary:
The Marshall Plan was a massive aid program to rebuild Western Europe, fight communism, and promote U.S. economic interests — and it helped lay the foundation for long-term European cooperation and peace.

26.5. Outline the Berlin airlift of 1948-1949. Explain why it was a perfect example of “containment.” 

• Feb 1948: Soviets staged a Communist coup in Czechoslovakia, ending the last Eastern European democracy
  
  

• U.S., France, and Great Britain began organizing West Germany as a separate, democratic nation
  
  

• June 1948: In response, the Soviet Union blockaded all roads, railways, and canals to West Berlin to force Western Allies out
  
  

• Berlin Airlift (1948–1949):
  
  

  • U.S. and British pilots launched a massive airlift, flying in 2.3 million tons of food, fuel, and supplies
    
    

  • Continued for almost a year, supplying over 2 million West Berliners
    
    

  • Avoided direct military conflict with the Soviets
    
    

  • Ended in May 1949 when the Soviets lifted the blockade
    
    

• Significance / Containment:
  
  

  • Perfect example of “containment”—the U.S. stopped Soviet expansion without using force
    
    

  • Maintained democratic West Berlin in the heart of Communist East Germany
    
    

  • Demonstrated U.S. commitment to resisting Communist aggression through nonviolent means

26.6. Understand the purpose of NATO and how it helped national security. 

• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) formed in 1949
  
  

• U.S. joined with Canada and Western European nations
  
  

• Created to counter the Soviet threat to Western Europe during the Cold War
  
  

• Marked the first peacetime military alliance in U.S. history
  
  

• Represented collective security:
  
  

  • If one NATO member was attacked, all others would respond—U.S. pledged to go to war to defend allies
    
    

• Helped U.S. national security by:
  
  

  • Deterring Soviet aggression through a united military front
    
    

  • Strengthening alliances with democratic nations
    
    

  • Providing military and economic aid to allies (e.g., $1 billion in military aid approved in 1949)
    
    

• Part of broader containment strategy to prevent the spread of communism

26.7. Identify the elements of the 1947 National Security Act.

• Unified military command: Combined all military branches under a single Secretary of Defense for streamlined defense planning.
  
  

• National Security Council (NSC): Created to advise the president on national security and foreign policy matters.
  
  

• Central Intelligence Agency (CIA): Established to gather intelligence and conduct covert operations (e.g., propaganda, sabotage, support for anti-communist efforts).
  
  

• Independent U.S. Air Force: Formed as a separate military branch, distinct from the Army.
  
  

• Strengthened U.S. conventional military power (increased defense budget, peacetime draft, permanent women’s military branches).
  
  

• Part of broader containment strategy including NATO alliance, foreign aid, and espionage efforts to counter the Soviet threat.

26.8. Explain why the McCarthyism phenomenon led to limitations on civil liberties in the early 1950s. 

• McCarthyism:
  
  

  • A period of anti-Communist hysteria during the early Cold War, named after Senator Joseph McCarthy.
    
    

  • Based on unfounded accusations of communist infiltration in the U.S. government, especially the State Department.
    
    

  • McCarthy claimed, without solid evidence, that numerous government officials were Communist sympathizers or spies.
    
    

  • He even accused respected figures, like General George C. Marshall, of being part of a Communist conspiracy.
    
    

  • The press amplified his claims, giving credibility and exposure to his accusations.
    
    

• Impact on Civil Liberties:
  
  

  • Widespread fear led to limitations on free speech and association, especially for those with leftist or radical views.
    
    

  • Many Americans were targeted simply for joining the Communist Party or associating with Communists in the past, not for illegal actions.
    
    

  • House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) investigated government employees and the movie industry, questioning loyalty and blacklisting individuals.
    
    

  • People lost their jobs, reputations, and livelihoods without due process — often without evidence of wrongdoing.
    
    

  • Caused psychological and economic harm to many innocent people.
    
    

  • Red-baiting tactics (labeling opponents as Communist sympathizers) silenced criticism and weakened support for liberal reforms.
    
    

  • Undermined Truman’s domestic agenda, as anticommunism was used as a political weapon by conservatives.
    
    

• Rosenberg Case:
  
  

  • Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were accused of espionage for allegedly sharing atomic secrets with the Soviets.
    
    

  • They were the only Americans executed for treason during the Red Scare (1953).
    
    

  • Their trial and execution reflected the extreme fear of internal Communist threats.
    
    

  • Later records confirmed some espionage occurred, but most of those persecuted during the Red Scare had not broken any laws.
    
    

• Long-term consequences:
  
  

  • Violation of constitutional rights (First and Fifth Amendments).
    
    

  • Culture of fear discouraged open political debate and dissent.
    
    

  • Set a dangerous precedent for using accusation without evidence as a tool for political gain.

26.9. Understand the Cold War events that led to a U.S. response in Korea, and explain the outcome of the U.S. involvement in Korea. 

 Background Causes of U.S. Involvement:

• After World War II, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel into two occupation zones:
  
  

  • North Korea: backed by the Soviet Union (Communist)
    
    

  • South Korea: backed by the United States (Non-Communist)
    
    

• Part of broader Cold War tensions — the U.S. aimed to contain the spread of communism globally.
  
  

 North Korean Invasion & U.S. Response (1950):

• In June 1950, 90,000 North Korean troops invaded South Korea, crossing the 38th parallel.
  
  

• This was seen as a communist aggression — a test of the U.S. containment policy.
  
  

• With United Nations approval, the U.S. led a UN military response.
  
  

Escalation of the War:

• By October 1950, UN forces (led by U.S. General Douglas MacArthur) pushed North Korean troops back across the 38th parallel.
  
  

• The military mission shifted from containment to elimination of communism in Korea.
  
  

• MacArthur moved UN troops close to the Chinese border — within 40 miles of China.
  
  

• In response, 300,000 Chinese soldiers entered the war, driving UN forces back and recapturing Seoul, the capital of South Korea.
  
  

Conflict Between Truman and MacArthur:

• President Truman wanted to avoid a wider war with China and favored a negotiated settlement.
  
  

• General MacArthur disagreed and pushed for total victory, even suggesting bombing China.
  
  

• In April 1951, Truman fired MacArthur for insubordination — a controversial but crucial assertion of civilian control over the military.
  
  

Outcome of the Korean War:

• The war ended in stalemate near the original 38th parallel.
  
  

• No formal peace treaty was signed — only an armistice in 1953.
  
  

• Korea remained divided:
  
  

  • North Korea: communist dictatorship
    
    

  • South Korea: capitalist democracy
    
    

• The war strengthened U.S. commitment to containing communism militarily and expanded U.S. military presence in Asia.
  
  

Significance:

• First military conflict of the Cold War (“hot war” within a Cold War).
  
  

• Set the precedent for U.S. involvement in future conflicts (e.g., Vietnam).
  
  

• Showed limits of military power in the nuclear age — fear of escalating into a world war.

26.10. Summarize the influence of the top-secret National Security Council Report (NSC 68). 

What Was NSC-68?

• Top-secret report completed by the National Security Council in April 1950.
  
  

• Argued that national survival in the Cold War required a massive military buildup.
  
  

• Warned of the global threat of Soviet communism and urged the U.S. to take a more aggressive, militarized stance.
  
  

Major Recommendations:

• Increase defense spending drastically.
  
  

• Expand the size and strength of the U.S. military.
  
  

• Build up nuclear weapons and conventional forces to counter the Soviet threat.
  
  

• Position the U.S. as a global military power, prepared to intervene anywhere communism might spread.
  
  

Influence of NSC-68:

• The outbreak of the Korean War (June 1950) triggered implementation of NSC-68’s recommendations.
  
  

• Military spending skyrocketed:
  
  

  • From $14 billion (1950) to $50 billion (1953).
    
    

  • By 1952, defense made up nearly 70% of the federal budget.
    
    

• U.S. armed forces tripled in size.
  
  

• Established a long-term policy of high military preparedness and global intervention.
  
  

Long-Term Impact:

• Marked a turning point in Cold War U.S. policy — from limited containment to militarized containment.
  
  

• Cemented the U.S. role as a global superpower with a permanent wartime economy.
  
  

• Set the stage for future conflicts and Cold War arms buildup (e.g., Vietnam, arms race with the USSR).

26.11. Identify MAD and the “New Look” in Foreign Policy, and analyze their impact on U.S. 

relations with the Soviet Union. 

“New Look” Foreign Policy (Eisenhower Administration):

• Introduced under President Dwight D. Eisenhower during the 1950s.
  
  

• Strategy focused on reducing conventional ground forces and instead concentrating military power in nuclear weapons and missile technology.
  
  

• Goal: Deter Soviet aggression with the threat of overwhelming nuclear retaliation, rather than costly ground wars.
  
  

• Emphasized giving American weapons to allies (rather than deploying troops) to support containment more economically.
  
  

• Part of broader effort to cut military spending while maintaining a strong defense posture.
  
  

Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD):

• Doctrine developed during the Cold War under the "New Look."
  
  

• Meant that if either the U.S. or USSR launched a nuclear attack, the other would respond with full nuclear retaliation.
  
  

• Outcome: Both sides would be completely destroyed, ensuring no one would dare start a nuclear war.
  
  

• Created a nuclear standoff between the superpowers — peace through fear of total annihilation.
  
  

Impact on U.S.–Soviet Relations:

• Led to a tense but stable Cold War balance — both sides avoided direct military conflict out of fear of nuclear war.
  
  

• Fueled the arms race as both nations built up huge stockpiles of nuclear weapons.
  
  

• Though it deterred open war, nuclear weapons were ineffective in stopping Soviet influence in places like Eastern Europe (the Iron Curtain stayed in place).
  
  

• Limited the U.S. ability to “roll back” communism in areas already under Soviet control — could only contain, not reverse, it.

26.12. Expound on what Eisenhower meant by the “Domino Theory.” 

Definition of the “Domino Theory”:

• Introduced by President Dwight D. Eisenhower during the Cold War.
  
  

• Claimed that if one country in a region fell to communism, then neighboring countries would quickly follow, like a row of falling dominoes.
  
  

• Used to justify U.S. involvement in stopping the spread of communism, especially in Southeast Asia.
  
  

Eisenhower’s Explanation:

• Quote: “You have a row of dominoes, you knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one is the certainty that it will go over very quickly.”
  
  

• A Communist victory in Vietnam could cause nearby countries like Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Japan, Taiwan, and the Philippines to fall next.
  
  

Impact of the Domino Theory:

• Shaped U.S. foreign policy in the 1950s–1970s, especially in Asia.
  
  

• Justified military and financial support to countries resisting communism, like Vietnam, South Korea, and Taiwan.
  
  

• In Vietnam, the U.S. funded 75% of France’s war costs by 1954.
  
  

• Although Eisenhower refused to send American troops to help the French at Dien Bien Phu, he laid the groundwork for future U.S. involvement in Vietnam.
  
  

Summary Sentence (optional for essays):

Eisenhower’s “Domino Theory” expressed the fear that if one nation in a region fell to communism, others would quickly follow, leading to aggressive U.S. efforts to contain communism in Southeast Asia and paving the way for deeper involvement in Vietnam.

26.13. Analyze Cold War activities during Eisenhower’s presidency in Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East. 

Asia:

Vietnam:

• Ho Chi Minh, a communist leader, declared Vietnam’s independence from France after World War II.
  
  

• The French fought to regain control, leading to the Battle of Dien Bien Phu (May 1954), where they were defeated by Vietnamese forces.
  
  

• Eisenhower refused to send U.S. troops, but feared the Domino Theory (that if Vietnam fell to communism, others would follow).
  
  

• The CIA began covert operations to destabilize North Vietnam, working against Ho Chi Minh’s communist regime.
  
  

Latin America:

Guatemala:

• President Jacobo Arbenz attempted to nationalize land owned by the United Fruit Company, a U.S. corporation.
  
  

• The CIA carried out covert operations, including economic sabotage and psychological warfare, to destabilize Arbenz’s government.
  
  

• Arbenz was eventually overthrown in 1954, and a pro-U.S. dictatorship was installed.
  
  

Cuba:

• In 1959, Fidel Castro led a revolution that ousted U.S.-backed dictator Fulgencio Batista.
  
  

• Eisenhower cut off diplomatic relations with Cuba and authorized the CIA to train Cuban exiles to prepare for an invasion (which would later become the Bay of Pigs Invasion under JFK).
  
  

Middle East:

Iran:

• Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh moved to nationalize Iran’s oil fields, which were under British control.
  
  

• In 1953, the CIA orchestrated a coup to overthrow Mossadegh and restore power to the pro-Western shah.
  
  

• The coup secured Western oil interests but caused long-term damage to U.S.-Iranian relations.
  
  

Israel and Egypt:

• The U.S. continued strong support for Israel during the Eisenhower years.
  
  

• In 1956, Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, previously controlled by British and French interests.
  
  

• This led to the Suez Crisis, in which Britain, France, and Israel attacked Egypt.
  
  

• Eisenhower, fearing Soviet involvement, pressured allies to withdraw, showing U.S. independence and its desire to maintain regional stability.
  
  

Summary of Impact:

• Eisenhower’s administration relied heavily on the CIA for covert operations to protect U.S. interests and stop the spread of communism.
  
  

• U.S. actions often replaced elected leaders with pro-American regimes, sometimes at the cost of long-term regional stability and trust.
  
  

• These Cold War interventions expanded American influence, but also fueled anti-American sentiment in many parts of the world.

26.14. Understand the significance of Sputnik and the U.S. response.

What Was Sputnik?

• October 1957: The Soviet Union launched Sputnik — the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth.
  
  

• Marked the beginning of the Space Race during the Cold War.
  
  

• Caused major fear in the U.S. that the Soviets were ahead in technology, missile development, and education.
  
  

U.S. Response to Sputnik:

1. Creation of NASA (1958):

• U.S. established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to lead space exploration efforts.
  
  

• NASA received increased federal funding to catch up with and surpass Soviet achievements.
  
  

2. National Defense Education Act (1958):

• Funded education programs in math, science, and foreign languages.
  
  

• Aimed to improve American students’ skills in fields critical to national defense and technological competition.
  
  

3. Military Expansion:

• Accelerated development of U.S. intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and Polaris nuclear submarines.
  
  

• Increased U.S. nuclear stockpile, installing missiles in countries like Britain, Italy, and Turkey.
  
  

4. Public Reaction and Civil Defense:

• Fear of nuclear war led to "duck and cover" drills in schools.
  
  

• Civil Defense efforts encouraged bomb shelters, though few were built.
  
  

• Growing anxiety about the nuclear arms race led to public pressure for nuclear disarmament.
  
  

U-2 Incident (May 1960):

• A U.S. U-2 spy plane was shot down by a Soviet missile over USSR territory.
  
  

• The U.S. initially denied the spying, but the Soviets revealed the pilot and photo evidence.
  
  

• Collapsed peace talks between the U.S. and USSR just before a major nuclear disarmament summit in Paris.
  
  

• Worsened Cold War tensions and sabotaged diplomatic progress.
  
  

Military-Industrial Complex:

• Sputnik and the arms race gave rise to the “military-industrial complex” — the growing alliance between the government, military, and defense industries.
  
  

• Eisenhower warned of its influence over U.S. policy and spending in his farewell address.
  
  

Summary Sentence (optional for essays):

The launch of Sputnik by the Soviets in 1957 shocked the U.S. into accelerating its space and weapons programs, leading to the creation of NASA, massive federal investment in education, a renewed arms race, and increased Cold War tensions — all of which fueled both innovation and fear in American society.

Chapter 27:

27.1. Identify the impact of domestic reform under the Truman administration. 

President Harry Truman’s domestic agenda, known as the Fair Deal, aimed to expand upon the New Deal and improve American life after WWII. While some efforts succeeded, others met resistance.

Key Impacts:

Positive Impacts:

• Higher Standard of Living:
  Many Americans experienced economic growth and greater prosperity after the war.
  
  

• GI Bill (Servicemen’s Readjustment Act):
  Helped returning WWII veterans by providing education, housing assistance, and job training, contributing to a strong middle class.
  
  

Challenges and Setbacks:

• Inflation Crisis:
  After the war, prices skyrocketed, making inflation Truman’s most severe domestic issue.
  
  

• Women Workers Displaced:
  As men returned from war, women were pushed out of jobs, reducing economic opportunities for them.
  
  

• Fair Deal Reforms Blocked:
  Truman’s push for national health insurance, expanded Social Security, and civil rights legislation mostly failed due to opposition.
  
  

• Business Pushback:
  Businesses lobbied to remove wartime economic controls and reduce government involvement.
  
  

• Anti-Communist Climate:
  Rising fears of communism made liberal reforms harder to pass.
  
  

• Republican-Controlled Congress:
  After 1946, Republicans in Congress opposed many of Truman’s policies and blocked Fair Deal proposals.
  
  

• Taft-Hartley Act (1947):
  Limited the power of labor unions, overriding Truman’s veto and weakening organized labor.
  
  

• Civil Rights Resistance:
  Truman tried to push civil rights reforms (like desegregating the military), but Southern Democrats strongly opposed them.
  
  

Summary Sentence:

While Truman’s Fair Deal aimed to extend New Deal reforms and improve postwar life, it faced major resistance from conservatives, business interests, and Southern Democrats, resulting in limited success.

27.2. Summarize how World War II and the Cold War impacted race relations in the U.S. during the 1940s. 

Impact of World War II:

• Black Americans:
  
  

  • Military service and migration empowered Black Americans to demand civil rights.
    
    

  • Returning Black soldiers, angry at racism at home, became more politically active.
    
    

  • Organizations like the NAACP grew in membership, and activists increasingly used legal strategies to challenge discrimination.
    
    

  • Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in Major League Baseball (1947), symbolizing broader integration efforts.
    
    

  • Truman’s President’s Committee on Civil Rights (1946) laid groundwork for future reforms.
    
    

• Mexican Americans:
  
  

  • WWII veterans formed groups like the American GI Forum to fight discrimination.
    
    

  • The Mendez v. Westminster (1947) case ended school segregation for Mexican American children in California and foreshadowed Brown v. Board.
    
    

  • LULAC (founded in 1929) became more active postwar in fighting inequality.
    
    

• Native Americans:
  
  

  • Thousands served in the military or worked in war industries.
    
    

  • Postwar policies began terminating tribal status and pushing urban relocation, often worsening poverty and eroding cultural identity.
    
    

Impact of the Cold War:

• Global image pressure:
  
  

  • U.S. racial injustice gave the Soviets propaganda to challenge America’s claims to global leadership and democracy.
    
    

  • U.S. leaders, especially Truman and Secretary of State Dean Acheson, worried racism undermined America’s moral authority abroad.
    
    

• Policy Responses:
  
  

  • Truman issued Executive Orders 9980 and 9981 (1948) to desegregate the federal workforce and the military.
    
    

  • These changes were slow to implement but laid the foundation for later progress (e.g., by 1953, the military was largely integrated).
    
    

Overall Significance:

World War II sparked a new civil rights consciousness among Black, Mexican American, and Native American communities, while the Cold War forced the U.S. government to begin addressing racial inequalities for fear of damaging its international reputation. Though systemic racism persisted, especially in the South, the 1940s marked a turning point that mobilized activism and set the stage for the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s.

27.3. Clarify Dwight Eisenhower’s “middle way” approach to the presidency. 

“Middle Way” / “Modern Republicanism”

• Resisted additional federal intervention
  
  

• Did not attempt to undo New Deal progress (from 1930s–1940s)
  
  

• Positioned himself between Democrats and Conservative Republicans
  
  

Limited Federal Expansion

• Reduced federal role in favor of state governments and private enterprise
  
  

• Supported large tax cuts → benefited businesses and the wealthy
  
  

• Opposed:
  
  

  • Federal aid to primary/secondary education
    
    

  • National health insurance (favored employer-provided private insurance)
    
    

  • Government control of nuclear energy → allowed private production and sale
    
    

Civil Rights & Social Policy

• Refused to endorse desegregation, leaving it to the states
  
  

• Passed Civil Rights Act of 1957 (symbolic, limited enforcement)
  
  

• Signed National Defense Education Act (1958) to boost education in math, science, languages (Cold War response)
  
  

Economic Challenges

• Recession in 1957 → conflict with Congress over budget
  
  

• Vetoed bills expanding housing, urban development, public works
  
  

Election Outcomes

• Easily reelected in 1956 (defeated Adlai Stevenson)
  
  

• Democrats retained control of Congress
  
  

• 1958 midterms: Democrats gained large majorities in House and Senate
  
  

Overall Impact

• Slightly favored corporate interests
  
  

• Maintained most federal government programs established since the New Deal
  
  

• Balanced conservative economic policy with moderate social restraint

27.4. Understand the impact of the 1956 Highway Act. 

Interstate Highway Act of 1956

• Eisenhower’s most significant domestic initiative
  
  

• Inspired by:
  
  

  • German Autobahn
    
    

  • 1919 Army convoy experience (took 6 days to cross U.S.)
    
    

Purpose & Justification

• Framed as essential for:
  
  

  • National defense (emergency evacuation routes in case of nuclear attack)
    
    

  • Economic growth
    
    

• Promoted as a National Interstate and Defense Highways Act
  
  

Funding

• Federal government covered most costs
  
  

• Funded through fuel and vehicle taxes
  
  

Effects

• Changed transportation: faster movement of people and goods
  
  

• Spurred suburban expansion
  
  

• Boosted:
  
  

  • Trucking industry
    
    

  • Construction industry
    
    

  • Automobile industry (all lobbied for the act)
    
    

Negative Consequences

• Air pollution
  
  

• Increased energy consumption
  
  

• Decline of railroads and mass transit
  
  

• Urban decay: deterioration of central cities due to suburbanization

27.5. Explain the rise of the Sun Belt in the 1950s. 

What is the Sun Belt?

• Southern and Southwestern U.S.
  
  

• Included states like California, Texas, Florida, Arizona
  
  

Why did people move there?

• Economic opportunity was the main draw
  
  

  • Defense industry was the largest job provider
    
    

  • Rise of high-tech and aerospace industries (e.g. in Los Angeles, Dallas–Fort Worth)
    
    

  • Growth in agribusiness and tourism
    
    

• Temperate climate made it attractive
  
  

• Air conditioning made living and working in hot climates possible
  
  

  • By 1960, 8 million homes had A/C
    
    

  • Enabled growth of cities and tourism (e.g. Disney World in Florida)
    
    

Population & Urban Growth

• California became the most populous state, surpassing New York
  
  

• Sports teams followed: Brooklyn Dodgers → Los Angeles (1958), Lakers → LA (1961)
  
  

• Cities like San Diego and San Antonio grew due to military bases
  
  

• One in three California workers had defense-related jobs by the 1960s
  
  

Technological & Transportation Factors

• Mechanization of farming → fewer farmworkers (declined by nearly 1/3)
  
  

• Farm output increased due to:
  
  

  • Specialization, fertilizers, and mechanization
    
    

• Automobiles and airplanes promoted mobility and Sun Belt growth
  
  

Environmental Impact

• Strain on water and power supplies led to dams and reservoirs
  
  

• Environmental costs:
  
  

  • Displacement of Native American communities (e.g. Upper Missouri River)
    
    

  • Smog and traffic congestion in sprawling cities like Los Angeles
    
    

Demographic Changes

• Massive migration:
  
  

  • Over 1/3 of Black Americans leaving the South moved west (1945–1960)
    
    

  • Mexican American population grew, especially in California and Texas
    
    

• Bracero Program (1942–1964):
  
  

  • Allowed 100,000+ Mexicans per year to work in U.S. agriculture
    
    

  • Many remained permanently (legally or illegally)
    
    

• Operation Wetback (1954):
  
  

  • U.S. deported over 1 million Mexicans in response to immigration concerns
    
    

Nickname

• Region also called the “Gun Belt” due to defense spending dominance during the Cold War

27.6. Describe the consumer “culture of abundance” in the 1950s and the impact television on culture and politics. 

Consumer “Culture of Abundance”

• Driven by:
  
  

  • Population surge (baby boom)
    
    

  • Consumer borrowing and credit
    
    

• Mass consumption became a key part of American identity
  
  

• Rise of suburban living → increased demand for appliances, cars, furniture
  
  

• Advertising boom promoted a lifestyle centered on material comfort
  
  

• Traditional family roles were emphasized:
  
  

  • Men as breadwinners, women as homemakers
    
    

  • Media reinforced conventional gender norms
    
    

• Buying goods was seen as patriotic and a sign of success
  
  

Impact of Television on Culture and Politics

On Culture:

• Became the central medium of entertainment and information
  
  

  • By the late 1950s, most American homes had a TV
    
    

• Offered relief from Cold War anxieties through light-hearted programming
  
  

• Rise of situation comedies (sitcoms):
  
  

  • Portrayed idealized suburban families
    
    

  • Reinforced social norms and values
    
    

• Shaped consumer behavior:
  
  

  • TV became the main platform for advertising products
    
    

  • Encouraged impulse buying and brand loyalty
    
    

On Politics:

• Changed how politicians communicated with the public
  
  

• Political messages and campaign ads could reach millions instantly
  
  

• Visual image and presentation became crucial for political success
  
  

• Helped nationalize politics by broadcasting political events (e.g., conventions, speeches)
  
  

Summary:
The 1950s saw a booming economy and a culture centered on mass consumption, family life, and traditional values. Television became the dominant cultural force—entertaining, shaping social norms, selling products, and transforming politics into a media-driven arena.

27.7. Explain the circumstances leading to the Brown v. Board of Education (1954) decision and its impact. 

Background & Causes of the Case

• Civil Rights Movement Emerges in the 1950s:
  
  

  • Over 3 million Black Americans moved from the South to cities where they had more political power
    
    

  • Activists highlighted how domestic racism hurt the U.S. image abroad during the Cold War
    
    

  • Black institutions (churches, colleges, newspapers) helped build networks and leadership
    
    

• Legal Challenge Led by NAACP
  
  

  • Goal: Overturn Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), which legalized “separate but equal” segregation
    
    

  • Lead attorney: Thurgood Marshall (future Supreme Court justice)
    
    

• Brown Case Specifics
  
  

  • Oliver Brown (Topeka, Kansas): Sued when his daughter was denied entry to nearby white school
    
    

  • Barbara Johns (Virginia): Led a student strike over poor conditions at her all-Black school
    
    

  • These cases were combined into Brown v. Board of Education
    
    

Decision and Immediate Effects

• Supreme Court Ruling (1954):
  
  

  • Unanimous decision under Chief Justice Earl Warren
    
    

  • Declared: "Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal"
    
    

  • Violated the 14th Amendment (equal protection clause)
    
    

• President Eisenhower’s Response:
  
  

  • Did not endorse the decision
    
    

  • Stayed silent during 1955 murder of Emmett Till
    
    

  • His inaction signaled lack of support for civil rights progress
    
    

Southern Resistance & Little Rock Crisis (1957)

• Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus:
  
  

  • Sent National Guard to block 9 Black students (Little Rock Nine) from entering Central High School
    
    

  • Withdrew protection, leaving students to face violent mobs
    
    

• Eisenhower’s Federal Action:
  
  

  • Sent U.S. Army troops to escort and protect the students
    
    

  • First federal military action in the South since Reconstruction
    
    

  • Faubus responded by closing schools the following year
    
    

Segregation Outside the South

• Northern schools weren’t legally segregated but still practiced de facto segregation
  
  

  • Used residential boundaries to separate students
    
    

  • Housing policies contributed to continued racial separation
    
    

Civil Rights Legislation

• Eisenhower supported limited action:
  
  

  • Integrated D.C. public facilities and military bases
    
    

  • Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960 passed but had little enforcement power
    
    

• Criticism from civil rights leaders:
  
  

  • Jackie Robinson: “Half a loaf is not enough”
    
    

  • E. Frederick Morrow (first Black White House staffer): Felt efforts were largely symbolic
    
    

Impact of Brown v. Board

• Major legal victory for civil rights
  
  

• Marked the beginning of the end for legalized school segregation
  
  

• Sparked massive white resistance, especially in the South
  
  

• Set the stage for increased federal involvement in civil rights issues

27.8. Describe the Little Rock school integration crisis of 1957. Why did President Eisenhower finally send in federal troops? 

Little Rock Integration Crisis (1957)

• Location: Central High School, Little Rock, Arkansas
  
  

• Event: Attempt to enforce Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ruling mandating school desegregation
  
  

• Students Involved: The “Little Rock Nine” – Nine Black students selected to integrate the school
  
  

Governor Orval Faubus’s Actions

• Blocked integration by sending Arkansas National Guard to prevent students from entering the school
  
  

• After federal pressure, he withdrew the Guard, leaving the students vulnerable to a violent white mob
  
  

• The students faced verbal and physical harassment outside the school
  
  

Why Eisenhower Sent Federal Troops

• Televised images of the mob violence shocked the nation
  
  

• Eisenhower was forced to act to maintain federal authority and uphold Supreme Court decisions
  
  

• Sent regular U.S. Army troops (paratroopers) to escort and protect the Little Rock Nine
  
  

• First federal military intervention in the South since Reconstruction
  
  

Aftermath

• Paratroopers stayed for the entire school year to ensure student safety
  
  

• In response, Faubus closed all Little Rock public schools the next year to avoid integration
  
  

• Eisenhower took no further action, showing limits of federal support
  
  

• Set a national precedent but also highlighted intense white resistance to desegregation
  
  

Broader Context

• In the North, school segregation was often not legal but still practiced:
  
  

  • Residential boundaries and housing policies ensured continued segregation
    
    

  • Black parents challenged school assignments in dozens of cities even before Brown
    
    

Summary

President Eisenhower sent federal troops to Little Rock in 1957 only after violent mobs threatened the safety of Black students and the authority of the federal government. The crisis highlighted deep Southern resistance to desegregation and revealed the challenges of enforcing civil rights even after landmark legal victories.

27.9. Explain the goals and strategies of King and the Montgomery Improvement Association in the bus boycott and explain Rosa Parks’ involvement. 

Rosa Parks’ Role

• December 1, 1955: Arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white man on a Montgomery, Alabama bus
  
  

• Violation of local segregation ordinance
  
  

• Her arrest sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott
  
  

• Parks was already active in civil rights, serving as a NAACP secretary
  
  

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956)

• Citywide protest by Black residents against segregated buses
  
  

• Lasted over a year (381 days)
  
  

• Aimed to end segregation on public transportation
  
  

• Demonstrated that African Americans could:
  
  

  • Organize effectively
    
    

  • Sustain long-term protest
    
    

  • Resist intimidation and threats
    
    

Martin Luther King Jr. & the MIA

• King was chosen to lead the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA)
  
  

• Emphasized nonviolent resistance
  
  

• Influenced by Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of satyagraha:
  
  

  • Peaceful protest
    
    

  • Passive resistance to unjust laws
    
    

• Strategy:
  
  

  • Mass mobilization of the Black community
    
    

  • Economic pressure through the boycott
    
    

  • Emphasis on dignity, discipline, and unity
    
    

Impact of the Boycott

• Supreme Court eventually ruled bus segregation unconstitutional
  
  

• Elevated MLK as a national civil rights leader
  
  

• King went on to lead the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
  
  

• Marked the beginning of mass nonviolent civil rights activism in the South
  
  

Summary

The Montgomery Bus Boycott, sparked by Rosa Parks’ arrest, was a key moment in the Civil Rights Movement. Led by Martin Luther King Jr. and the MIA, the boycott used nonviolent resistance to challenge segregation, proving the strength and determination of the Black community and launching a new era of civil rights activism.

27.10. Describe just what Dr. King’s philosophy of non-violence was, and how he used it so effectively in most cases

Dr. King’s Philosophy of Nonviolence

• Core Belief:
  
  

  • Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s satyagraha – the idea of "truth-force" and peaceful resistance
    
    

  • Based on Christian principles of love, forgiveness, and justice
    
    

• Key Principles:
  
  

  • Resist evil without resorting to violence
    
    

  • Win over opponents through understanding, not humiliation
    
    

  • Accept suffering without retaliation to expose injustice
    
    

  • Aim to create a “beloved community” rooted in equality and peace
    
    

  • Peaceful protest can awaken the moral conscience of the public
    
    

How King Used Nonviolence Effectively

• Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–56):
  
  

  • Peaceful boycott against segregated buses
    
    

  • Gained national attention and Supreme Court victory
    
    

• Birmingham Campaign (1963):
  
  

  • Used nonviolent marches and sit-ins to protest segregation
    
    

  • Police brutality caught on TV shocked the nation
    
    

  • Led to desegregation negotiations and passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
    
    

• March on Washington (1963):
  
  

  • Peaceful demonstration for civil and economic rights
    
    

  • Delivered the famous “I Have a Dream” speech
    
    

  • Pressured lawmakers to take action on civil rights
    
    

• Selma to Montgomery Marches (1965):
  
  

  • Protests for voting rights met with violent opposition (“Bloody Sunday”)
    
    

  • Led to public outrage and helped pass the Voting Rights Act of 1965
    
    

Effectiveness of Nonviolence

• Drew national sympathy through images of peaceful protestors facing violent repression
  
  

• Mobilized broad support, including from white allies, churches, and the federal government
  
  

• Exposed the moral failure of segregationists and forced government action
  
  

• Created lasting legal and social change while preserving dignity and unity
  
  

Summary

Dr. King’s nonviolent philosophy emphasized love, peaceful resistance, and moral strength. By refusing to meet hatred with hatred, he used nonviolence as a powerful weapon for justice, making it one of the most effective tools of the Civil Rights Movement.

Chapter 28:

28.1. Analyze the initiatives pursued by Kennedy’s New Frontier program. 

Theme of the New Frontier:

• Emphasized optimism, hope, and courage
  
  

• Aimed to tackle “unsolved problems of peace and war, ignorance and prejudice, poverty and surplus”
  
  

Key Initiatives:

• Space program: Supported space exploration; astronaut John Glenn became first American to orbit Earth
  
  

• Antipoverty measures: Sought to address economic inequality and poverty
  
  

• Civil rights: Took early steps in promoting racial equality, prodded by civil rights movement
  
  

• Economic initiatives: Focused on stimulating the economy through government action
  
  

Impact and Legacy:

• JFK's presidency ended with his assassination on November 22, 1963
  
  

• Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded him and expanded on the New Frontier with the Great Society program
  
  

• The Warren Commission concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in JFK’s assassination
  
  

Liberal Goals in the 1960s (Context):

• Shifted beyond New Deal economic security to include individual rights and racial justice
  
  

• Postwar prosperity and court decisions supported this expansion
  
  

• Sparked political debate—liberals wanted more reform, conservatives resisted government expansion

28.2. Identify the Warren Commission and its purpose. 

What it was:

• A special commission established by President Lyndon B. Johnson after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy
  
  

Purpose:

• To investigate the assassination of JFK (November 22, 1963)
  
  

• To determine whether there was a conspiracy or if it was the act of a lone individual
  
  

Conclusion:

• The Warren Commission concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in assassinating JFK
  
  

• No evidence of a larger conspiracy was found
  
  

Significance:

• Aimed to provide the public with a clear explanation and prevent speculation
  
  

• Its findings have remained controversial, with many still questioning the lone gunman theory

28.3. Explain the terms of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. 

Civil Rights Act of 1964:

• Strongest civil rights law since Reconstruction
  
  

• Made discrimination illegal in:
  
  

  • Employment
    
    

  • Education
    
    

  • Public accommodations (restaurants, hotels, etc.)
    
    

• Passed under President Lyndon B. Johnson
  
  

  • Johnson pushed for its passage after JFK’s assassination, calling it a legacy to Kennedy
    
    

  • Faced strong opposition from southern Democrats
    
    

  • Required major political effort and Republican support to pass
    
    

• Marked a break from past policies like the New Deal that often excluded minorities
  
  

Voting Rights Act of 1965:

• Banned literacy tests and other discriminatory voting practices
  
  

• Authorized federal intervention (like federal registrars) to protect Black Americans’ right to vote
  
  

• Aimed to enforce the 15th Amendment and eliminate barriers to voting in the South
  
  

Significance of Both Acts:

• Major victories for the civil rights movement
  
  

• Enforced racial equality under the law
  
  

• Showed Johnson’s commitment to civil rights despite political risks
  
  

• Expanded the role of the federal government in protecting individual rights
  
  

28.4. Describe the major components of President Johnson’s Great Society program in the areas of education, the economy, and health care. 

ECONOMY – "War on Poverty":

• Economic Opportunity Act of 1964:
  
  

  • Created Office of Economic Opportunity
    
    

  • Launched ten programs, including:
    
    

    • Community Action Program (CAP): Empowered the poor to organize and manage local programs
      
      

    • Food stamp program
      
      

    • Rent supplements
      
      

• Aimed to reduce poverty and increase economic opportunity
  
  

EDUCATION:

• Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965):
  
  

  • Major federal involvement in K–12 education
    
    

  • Provided funding to schools, especially those in low-income areas
    
    

• Higher Education Act (1965):
  
  

  • Expanded federal aid to colleges and universities
    
    

  • Included funding for buildings, academic programs, scholarships, and student loans
    
    

HEALTH CARE:

• Medicare (1965):
  
  

  • Provided health insurance for the elderly
    
    

• Medicaid (1965):
  
  

  • Offered medical care for the poor
    
    

Assessment of the Great Society:

• Successes:
  
  

  • Many male-headed families rose out of poverty
    
    

  • African American families saw some improvement, though at a slower rate
    
    

• Limitations:
  
  

  • Female-headed households often did not benefit
    
    

  • Conservative criticism: Encouraged dependency; called it a system of "handouts"
    
    

  • Liberal criticism: Didn’t address economic structural inequality or redistribute wealth enough

28.5. Understand the significance of the Supreme Court rulings under Chief Justice Earl Warren. 

Warren Court Overview (1953–1969):

• Led by Chief Justice Earl Warren
  
  

• Marked a "Judicial Revolution"
  
  

• Expanded the Constitution’s protections of equality and individual rights
  
  

• Actively defended civil liberties, civil rights, and due process
  
  

Major Rulings:

1. Baker v. Carr (1963):
   
   

   • Established "one person, one vote" principle
     
     

   • Required equal population in congressional districts
     
     

   • Gave urban areas more equal representation
     
     

2. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963):
   
   

   • Guaranteed the right to a public defender (legal counsel) in criminal cases
     
     

   • Even poor defendants must be provided an attorney
     
     

3. Miranda v. Arizona (1966):
   
   

   • Required that suspects in custody be informed of their rights
     
     

     • Right to remain silent
       
       

     • Right to an attorney
       
       

   • Led to Miranda Rights being read during arrests
     
     

4. Abington School District v. Schempp (1963):
   
   

   • Ruled prayer and Bible readings in public schools unconstitutional
     
     

   • Reinforced separation of church and state
     
     

Significance:

• Strengthened individual protections under the law
  
  

• Supported civil rights and liberties for minorities and the accused
  
  

• Shifted power toward the federal judiciary in enforcing constitutional rights
  
  

• Sparked criticism from conservatives who felt the Court was too activist

28.6. Illustrate the civil rights activities of the 1960s, particularly sit-ins, Freedom Rides, and the Selma March. 

Sit-Ins (1960):

• Began at Woolworth’s lunch counter in Greensboro, NC
  
  

• Led by college students and organized by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
  
  

• Protested segregated public spaces by peacefully sitting in white-only areas
  
  

• Sparked a nationwide movement of nonviolent direct action
  
  

Freedom Rides (1961):

• Organized by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
  
  

• Aimed to integrate interstate bus travel and terminals in the South
  
  

• Riders (Black and white) rode buses through the South to challenge segregation
  
  

• Met with violent resistance, but gained national attention and federal support
  
  

Voter Education Project (1962):

• Focused on educating and registering Black voters in the South
  
  

• Part of the broader effort to increase African American political participation
  
  

Selma March (March 1965):

• Organized to demand voting rights for African Americans
  
  

• Marchers planned to walk from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama
  
  

• On “Bloody Sunday,” Alabama state troopers violently attacked peaceful marchers at the Edmund Pettus Bridge
  
  

• Led to increased public support and the eventual passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965
  
  

Significance:

• Demonstrated the power of nonviolent protest
  
  

• Exposed Southern racism and brutality to the national public
  
  

• Led to major legislative victories in civil rights

28.7. Explain the ideas and philosophy espoused by Malcolm X. How did he differ from Dr. King in his ideas for black advancement? 

Martin Luther King, Jr.:

• Believed in nonviolence and peaceful protest
  
  

• Advocated for racial integration and unity
  
  

• Led key civil rights actions like:
  
  

  • 1963 Birmingham Campaign (to integrate public facilities and jobs)
    
    

  • March on Washington (Aug 1963) – “I Have a Dream” speech
    
    

• Worked within the system to push for civil rights legislation
  
  

Malcolm X:

• Advocated for Black pride, autonomy, and self-determination
  
  

• Believed in self-defense against white violence
  
  

• Was more critical of integration and white involvement in the civil rights struggle
  
  

• Called for Black empowerment and often challenged the effectiveness of nonviolent protest
  
  

Key Differences:

• King: Nonviolence, integration, working within the political system
  
  

• Malcolm X: Self-defense, Black nationalism, skepticism toward white allies and integration
  
  

• Malcolm X promoted a more radical and militant approach, especially early in his career, while King remained committed to peaceful civil disobedience

28.8. Describe the philosophy and activities of the American Indian Movement. 

Founding and Philosophy:

• American Indian Movement (AIM) founded in 1968 by Dennis Banks and George Mitchell
  
  

• Emerged in response to government assimilation policies, urban poverty, and police harassment
  
  

• Advocated for Native pride, tribal sovereignty, and cultural survival
  
  

• Rejected forced assimilation; promoted self-determination and traditional Native values
  
  

Major Goals and Activities:

• Protect Native Americans from police harassment
  
  

• Demand antipoverty funds and equal access to federal programs
  
  

• Establish “survival schools” to teach Native history, language, and culture
  
  

• Seizure of Alcatraz Island (1969):
  
  

  • Symbolic protest by Native activists
    
    

  • Drew national attention to Native rights
    
    

Policy Outcomes and Achievements:

• Helped end harmful government policies like:
  
  

  • Relocation Program
    
    

  • Termination policy (which ended federal recognition and aid)
    
    

• Achieved:
  
  

  • Greater tribal sovereignty
    
    

  • Local control over education, policing, and community services
    
    

  • Legal protection of Native religious practices
    
    

  • Raised awareness of Native American struggles and rights
    
    

Background Context:

• Post-WWII U.S. policies emphasized compensation, termination, and relocation
  
  

  • Many Native Americans moved to cities, often facing racism, poverty, and cultural loss
    
    

• The urban experience led to a pan-Indian movement and increased political activism
  
  

Significance:

• AIM played a major role in the Red Power movement
  
  

• Empowered Native communities to fight for land rights, cultural preservation, and self-governance
  
  

• Part of the broader Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s and 70s, but focused on Indigenous sovereignty and identity

28.9. Describe the strategy and achievements of the United Farm Workers. 

Founding and Purpose:

• United Farm Workers (UFW) founded in 1962 by Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta
  
  

• Goal: Improve conditions for migrant agricultural workers, many of whom were Mexican American
  
  

• Focused on ending exploitation, gaining political power, and fighting discrimination
  
  

Strategies:

• Emphasized nonviolent, collective action
  
  

• Organized strikes and boycotts to pressure growers and businesses
  
  

• Most famous action: National boycott of California grapes (1970)
  
  

  • Gained widespread national support
    
    

  • Brought attention to poor working conditions
    
    

• Advocated for:
  
  

  • Better wages and working conditions
    
    

  • Education rights
    
    

  • Protection from police brutality
    
    

Achievements:

• 1970 grape boycott led to a wage increase for farmworkers
  
  

• Raised national awareness of farmworker struggles
  
  

• Helped politicize Mexican Americans and mobilize Latino communities
  
  

• Advanced civil rights and labor rights for agricultural workers
  
  

Significance:

• The UFW was a major force in the Chicano Movement
  
  

• Demonstrated the power of grassroots organizing
  
  

• Though membership declined in the 1970s, the UFW made lasting contributions to social justice and worker rights

28.10. Identify the event that served as a catalyst for the gay rights movement of the 1960s. 

Catalyst Event:

• Stonewall Inn raid and riots (1969) – New York City, Greenwich Village
  
  

  • Police raided a popular gay bar, sparking several days of riots and resistance
    
    

  • Marked a turning point: gay men and lesbians fought back, refusing to remain silent or submissive
    
    

Significance of Stonewall:

• Launched a more militant and public phase of the gay rights movement
  
  

• Inspired the creation of new organizations, including:
  
  

  • Gay Liberation Front
    
    

  • National Gay and Lesbian Task Force
    
    

• Activists began calling for gay pride, encouraging people to “come out” publicly
  
  

Context:

• Before Stonewall:
  
  

  • Gay people faced discrimination, arrest, and social ostracism
    
    

  • The 1950s homophile movement was quiet and conformist, focused on respectability
    
    

• After Stonewall:
  
  

  • Movement embraced visibility, empowerment, and equal rights
    
    

  • Paralleled other movements like Black Power in promoting self-determination
    
    

Long-Term Impact:

• 1972: Ann Arbor passed first gay antidiscrimination ordinance
  
  

• 1973: APA removed homosexuality from its list of mental disorders
  
  

• 1974: Elaine Noble elected to Massachusetts legislature — first openly gay state official
  
  

Conclusion:

• The Stonewall Riots served as the catalyst for the modern gay rights movement, sparking activism, pride, and the push for equality and recognition

28.11. Identify the major leaders of the feminist movement of the 60s and 70s and their goals and activities. 

Major Leaders and Organizations

• Betty Friedan
  
  

  • Co-founder of the National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966
    
    

  • Goal: Integrate women into existing institutions and achieve equal treatment in public life
    
    

• Gloria Steinem
  
  

  • Journalist and activist
    
    

  • Co-founded Ms. magazine (1972) — first mass-circulation feminist magazine
    
    

  • Promoted feminist issues and women-controlled media
    
    

• Lucinda Cisler
  
  

  • Radical feminist voice, strongly supported abortion rights
    
    

  • Advocated reproductive freedom as essential to women’s liberation
    
    

• Other Activists:
  
  

  • Young women involved in the New Left and civil rights movement who became radical feminists
    
    

  • Formed women’s liberation groups separate from male-dominated movements
    
    

Movement Goals and Divisions

• National Organization for Women (NOW):
  
  

  • Focused on equal rights and integration in employment, education, and public life
    
    

  • Worked through legal and political channels
    
    

• Radical Feminism / Women’s Liberation Movement:
  
  

  • Sought total transformation of societal institutions, not just integration
    
    

  • Criticized traditional roles, beauty standards, and patriarchy
    
    

  • Highlighted issues like rape, domestic violence, and abortion as systemic, not personal problems (“The personal is political”)
    
    

  • Called for separation from men and rethinking family and sexual relationships
    
    

Key Events and Actions

• 1968 Miss America Pageant Protest:
  
  

  • Radical feminists picketed, denouncing beauty standards and objectification of women
    
    

• “Consciousness-raising” groups:
  
  

  • Helped women realize discrimination was systemic, not just personal
    
    

• Title IX (1972):
  
  

  • Banned sex discrimination in education, affecting admissions, athletics, and hiring
    
    

• Other Legal and Social Advances:
  
  

  • Laws improving treatment of rape victims and domestic violence survivors
    
    

  • Greater access to abortion rights following Roe v. Wade (1973)
    
    

  • Women entered previously male-dominated fields in greater numbers
    
    

Opposition and Challenges

• Faced media trivialization and ridicule
  
  

• Encountered backlash from social conservatives, especially over Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) and abortion rights
  
  

• Continued gender wage gaps, occupational segregation, and the “double shift” (work plus home care) persisted
  
  

Impact and Legacy

• Expanded women’s participation in higher education and professional fields
  
  

• Shifted public conversations about gender, sexuality, and power
  
  

• Inspired ongoing feminist activism and legal reforms
  
  

• Helped change cultural norms and raise awareness about women’s rights and equality

28.12. Understand the rise of the conservative grassroots movement and its impact on politics in the 1960s and Nixon’s rise to the White House.

Rise of Grassroots Conservatism:

• Strong support base in the Western and Southern United States
  
  

• Emphasized:
  
  

  • Protestant morality
    
    

  • Individualism and personal responsibility
    
    

  • Opposition to federal government interference in local affairs
    
    

• Concern over “moral decline” in society (culture, values)
  
  

• Active protests against taxes and big government spending
  
  

• Influential groups:
  
  

  • Anti-Communists
    
    

  • Young Americans for Freedom (YAF)
    
    

• Barry Goldwater (1964):
  
  

  • Conservative Republican candidate
    
    

  • Won nomination due to support from grassroots conservatives and YAF
    
    

  • Campaign marked a shift toward conservative ideology despite losing general election
    
    

Richard Nixon’s Role and Policies:

• Rose politically by appealing to “law and order” and conservative voters
  
  

• Approach to civil rights:
  
  

  • Reluctant to use federal power to enforce school integration in the South
    
    

  • Supported affirmative action programs for federal contractors and unions
    
    

  • His administration increased government contracts and loans to minority businesses
    
    

• Balanced between conservative grassroots demands and pragmatic governance
  
  

Impact on Politics:

• The conservative grassroots movement helped reshape the Republican Party
  
  

• Laid the foundation for Nixon’s successful presidential campaigns (1968 and 1972)
  
  

• Marked a shift in U.S. politics toward greater emphasis on conservative values, especially in the South and West
  
  

• Fueled political realignments and the rise of the “New Right” in later decades