Copy of AP Huge Final Review:
AP Huge Final Review:
Types of Diffusion
1. Relocation Diffusion
Definition: The spread of a cultural trait or idea through the physical movement of people.
Example: The spread of languages, such as Spanish being brought to the Americas by European colonizers.
2. Stimulus Diffusion
Definition: The spread of an underlying principle, even though a specific characteristic is rejected.
Example: The adaptation of fast food culture globally, where specific menus may vary to suit local tastes.
3. Hierarchical Diffusion
Definition: The spread of an idea from persons or nodes of authority or power to other persons or places.
Example: Fashion trends spreading from major cities like Paris and New York to smaller towns.
4. Expansion Diffusion
Definition: The spread of a feature from one place to another in a snowballing process.
Example: The widespread adoption of the Internet.
5. Contagious Diffusion
Definition: The rapid, widespread diffusion of a characteristic throughout the population.
Example: The spread of viral videos or memes on social media.
6. Influence of Media
Definition: Media plays a critical role in the diffusion process by rapidly disseminating information and cultural traits.
Example: How K-pop culture has spread globally through music videos, social media, and streaming platforms.
Spatial Concepts
7. Distance Decay
Definition: The diminishing importance and eventual disappearance of a phenomenon with increasing distance from its origin.
Example: Cultural influences may weaken the farther they are from the cultural hearth.
8. Time-Space Compression
Definition: The reduction in the time it takes for something to reach another place due to technological advancements.
Example: Air travel and the Internet have dramatically reduced the perceived distance between places.
Cultural Patterns in the United States
9. Folk Housing Patterns
Definition: Traditional housing styles that reflect the cultural heritage and environmental context of an area.
Example: New England Saltbox, Mid-Atlantic I-house, and Southern Tidewater homes.
10. Religious Patterns
Christianity: Predominantly practiced religion in the U.S., with various denominations.
Catholicism: Strong presence in the Northeast, Southwest, and major cities.
Lutheranism: Concentrated in the Upper Midwest, particularly in states like Minnesota and North Dakota.
Islam: Growing presence in urban areas and immigrant communities.
Hinduism: Primarily found in urban areas with significant Indian populations, such as in New York and California.
11. Language Patterns
Definition: The distribution of languages across different regions.
Example: English is the dominant language, but there are significant Spanish-speaking populations in the Southwest and urban areas. Various other languages are spoken by immigrant communities.
Demographic Transition Model (DTM)
Reasons for Transitions:
The Demographic Transition Model explains the transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates as a country develops.
Stage I (Pre-Industrial): High birth and death rates lead to a stable population. Reasons include limited medical knowledge, high infant mortality, and subsistence agriculture.
Stage II (Early Industrial): Death rates drop due to improvements in healthcare, sanitation, and food supply. Birth rates remain high, causing rapid population growth.
Stage III (Late Industrial): Birth rates begin to decline due to changes in social values, increased access to contraception, and economic shifts. Population growth slows.
Stage IV (Post-Industrial): Both birth and death rates are low, leading to a stable or slowly growing population. Reasons include higher living standards, better education, and urbanization.
Contrasts Between Stages I and IV:
Birth and Death Rates: Stage I has high birth and death rates, while Stage IV has low birth and death rates.
Population Growth: Stage I sees little population growth, whereas Stage IV may have zero or negative growth.
Similarities and Differences Between Stages I and IV:
Similarities: Both stages can exhibit stable population sizes, although for different reasons (high death rates in Stage I vs. low birth rates in Stage IV).
Differences: Reasons for stability differ vastly due to medical, technological, and social advancements.
Connection to Development:
As countries develop economically and socially, they tend to move through these stages, reflecting improvements in healthcare, education, and living standards.
Areas with Higher Crude Birth Rates (CBR) and Crude Death Rates (CDR):
Higher CBR: Sub-Saharan Africa, parts of South Asia.
Higher CDR: Sub-Saharan Africa, parts of South Asia, some developed countries with aging populations (higher CDR due to older age structure).
Reasons Developed Countries Have Higher CDR than Less Developed Countries:
Higher CDR in more developed countries often reflects an older population age structure. People live longer due to better healthcare, leading to a larger proportion of elderly individuals who have higher mortality rates.
Lowering Fertility Rates and CBR:
Education: Improving access to education, particularly for women.
Healthcare: Providing better access to reproductive healthcare and contraception.
Economic Opportunities: Creating economic opportunities for women to increase career prospects.
Government Policies: Implementing policies that support family planning.
Density Measures:
Arithmetic Density: Total population divided by total land area. It gives a general sense of population density.
Physiological Density: Total population divided by arable land area. This measure is always higher than arithmetic density as it reflects the pressure on productive land.
Agricultural Density: Number of farmers per unit of arable land. High agricultural density indicates less mechanization and smaller farms but doesn't imply highly productive agriculture.
Population Pyramids:
Different shapes reflect different demographic circumstances:
Wide Base: Indicates high birth rates and youthful population (e.g., Sub-Saharan Africa).
Narrow Base, Wider Top: Indicates aging population and lower birth rates (e.g., Japan, Germany).
Epidemiological Transition Model:
This model describes the changes in population health as countries develop:
Stage 1: Pestilence and famine.
Stage 2: Receding pandemics.
Stage 3: Degenerative and man-made diseases.
Stage 4: Delayed degenerative diseases.
Lowering or Raising CBR and CDR:
Lowering CBR: Through family planning, education, and economic development.
Raising CBR: Policies supporting larger families, financial incentives.
Lowering CDR: Improving healthcare, sanitation, and nutrition.
Raising CDR: Often occurs naturally with an aging population.
Overpopulation:
Occurs when a region's population exceeds its carrying capacity, leading to resource depletion and environmental degradation.
Thomas Malthus:
An early economist who theorized that population growth would outpace food production, leading to famine and societal collapse. His theories have been criticized but remain influential in demographic studies.
S-Curve:
A graphical representation of population growth that depicts exponential
Migration Concepts
1. Gender Differences
Differences: Gender can significantly influence migration patterns. Historically, men often migrate for economic opportunities while women may migrate for family reunification or as dependents. However, recent trends show more women migrating independently for work, education, and other reasons.
Examples: Female domestic workers moving from Southeast Asia to the Middle East or male construction workers migrating from Mexico to the United States.
2. Reasons and Destinations
Reasons: Economic opportunities, education, family reunification, escaping conflict or persecution, and environmental factors.
Destinations: Developed countries (Stage IV+) are often preferred due to better economic opportunities and living standards, whereas internal migration in developing countries may target urban areas.
3. Snowbirds
Definition: "Snowbirds" are typically retirees or seasonal workers who migrate from colder northern regions to warmer southern regions during the winter.
Example: Americans moving from the northern states to Florida or Arizona for the winter months.
4. Intervening Obstacles
Definition: Factors that hinder or prevent migration. These can be physical (mountains, rivers), legal (immigration laws), economic (lack of funds), or cultural (language barriers).
Example: Strict immigration policies can be a major intervening obstacle.
5. Forced Migration
Definition: Migration due to factors such as conflict, natural disasters, or persecution, where individuals have no choice but to leave their homes.
Example: Syrian refugees fleeing civil war.
6. Step Migration
Definition: Migration to a distant destination that occurs in stages. For example, moving from a rural area to a town, then to a city.
Example: A farmer moving to a small town, then to a larger city for better job opportunities.
7. Chain Migration
Definition: Migration of people to a specific location because relatives or members of the same nationality previously migrated there.
Example: Families from Mexico moving to areas in the U.S. where relatives have already settled.
8. Enclaves
Definition: Distinct cultural, ethnic, or economic communities within a larger population.
Example: Chinatown in New York City or Little Italy in Boston.
9. Brain Drain and Brain Gain
Brain Drain: The emigration of highly skilled or educated individuals from one country to another.
Example: Indian software engineers moving to Silicon Valley.
Brain Gain: The immigration of skilled professionals to a country, enhancing its human capital.
Example: Skilled professionals from developing countries moving to Canada.
10. African-Americans
Migration Patterns: Historical migration patterns include the Great Migration (early 20th century) where African-Americans moved from the rural South to urban areas in the North for better opportunities and escaping segregation.
11. Stage II Migrants to Stage IV+ Countries
Reason: Migrants from Stage II (developing) countries move to Stage IV+ (developed) countries seeking better economic opportunities, education, and living standards.
12. Leading Sources for Immigration to the United States
Sources: Countries like Mexico, China, India, and the Philippines are among the leading sources of immigrants to the U.S.
13. Transhumance
Definition: The seasonal movement of livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures.
Example: Nomadic herders in the Sahel region of Africa moving their livestock seasonally.
14. South Asia (Bangladesh 1947-)
Migration Pattern: Significant migration occurred during and after the partition of India in 1947, leading to large population exchanges between India, Pakistan, and later Bangladesh.
15. Migration Transition Model
Definition: Describes how migration patterns change as countries move through different stages of the Demographic Transition Model.
Stage 1: Little migration.
Stage 2: High emigration due to population growth and economic push factors.
Stage 3: Migration starts to diversify.
Stage 4+: Immigration often exceeds emigration.
16. Gravity Model
Definition: A model used to predict the interaction between two places. It suggests that migration is directly proportional to the population size and inversely proportional to the distance between them.
Example: Larger cities like New York and Los Angeles attract more migrants due to their size and opportunities.
Culture Concepts
1. Artifact
Definition: A physical object made and used by people that reflects their culture.
Example: A traditional Japanese tea set.
2. Mentifact
Definition: The ideas, values, and beliefs of a culture.
Example: Religious beliefs or philosophical concepts like democracy.
3. Sociofact
Definition: The social structures and institutions of a culture.
Example: Family structures or educational systems.
4. Assimilation
Definition: The process by which a person or group's culture comes to resemble those of another group.
Example: Immigrants adopting the language and customs of their new country.
5. Acculturation
Definition: The exchange of cultural features that results when groups come into continuous firsthand contact.
Example: The blending of Native American and European cuisines.
Folk vs. Popular Culture
Folk Culture
Music: Traditional, passed down orally, often tied to specific communities.
Anonymity: Created by unknown or multiple people within a community.
Oral Tradition: Stories, songs, and practices passed down verbally.
Popular Culture
Free Time: Often produced for entertainment during leisure time.
Commodification: Turned into products and services that can be bought and sold.
Placelessness: Often looks the same from one place to another, lacking unique characteristics tied to a specific location.
Taboo
Definition: A restriction on behavior imposed by social custom.
Example: Dietary restrictions in various religions, such as the prohibition of pork in Islam and Judaism.
Language Concepts
1. Belgium
Languages: Official languages include Dutch, French, and German.
2. Official Languages in Former Colonies
Example: Many African countries, like Nigeria, use English as an official language due to British colonial history.
3. Sango in Central African Republic
Reason: Sango is used as a lingua franca to facilitate communication among diverse ethnic groups despite the French colonial history. It emerged from trade and social interactions among different communities.
4. Dialect
Definition: A regional or social variation of a language.
Example: The Southern American English dialect.
5. Isogloss
Definition: A boundary that separates regions with different linguistic features.
Example: The line dividing areas where people say "soda" versus "pop."
6. Isophone
Definition: A line on a dialect map marking the boundary between areas with different pronunciations of a particular phoneme.
Example: The difference in pronunciation of the "r" sound in different regions.
7. Creole
Definition: A stable, natural language that develops from the mixing of parent languages.
Example: Haitian Creole, which developed from French and African languages.
8. Lingua Franca
Definition: A language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose native languages are different.
Example: English is a lingua franca in international business and diplomacy.
9. Finland and Hungary
Languages: Both countries speak languages (Finnish and Hungarian) that belong to the Uralic language family, distinct from the Indo-European languages spoken by their neighbors.
10. Iceland
Language: Icelandic, a language that has changed very little over centuries, preserving its ancient form.
11. Language Divergence
Definition: The process by which a language splits into dialects and eventually distinct languages.
Example: Latin evolving into the Romance languages (Spanish, French, Italian, etc.).
12. Boston Accent
Example: A distinctive accent found in Boston, characterized by non-rhoticity (dropping the "r" sound in certain words).
13. Esperanto
Definition: A constructed international auxiliary language created to foster communication between speakers of different native languages.
Example: Esperanto speakers around the world use the language for international correspondence and gatherings.
14. Toponym
Definition: The name given to a place.
Example: "New York" or "Los Angeles."
Preservation of Endangered Languages
Personal Efforts
Example: Individuals learning and teaching their native languages to preserve them.
Institutional Efforts
Example: Schools offering classes in indigenous languages.
Political Efforts
Example: Government policies promoting the use of indigenous languages in official contexts.
Technological Efforts
Example: Language apps and online resources for learning and practicing endangered languages.
Language Hybrids
Denglish, Spanglish, Singlish, Norglish
Reason: These hybrid languages develop due to bilingual speakers blending elements of their native language with English, often for ease of communication or cultural expression.
Persistence of Dialects and Minority Languages
Reason: Cultural pride, community solidarity, and efforts to preserve linguistic heritage contribute to the persistence of dialects and minority languages.
Languages of Class
Example: The use of different languages or dialects to signify social or economic status, such as the distinction between Standard English and African American Vernacular English (AAVE) in the U.S.
Religion Concepts
1. Syncretic
Definition: The blending of different religious beliefs and practices into a new system.
Example: Voodoo, which combines elements of West African religions with Christianity.
2. Ethnic Religion
Definition: A religion associated with a specific ethnic group, often not seeking converts outside that group.
Example: Hinduism is primarily practiced in India and Nepal.
3. Universalizing Religion
Definition: A religion that seeks to convert individuals from different cultural backgrounds.
Example: Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism.
4. Ganges, Kumbh Mela
Ganges: A sacred river in Hinduism, where pilgrims perform rituals and ceremonies.
Kumbh Mela: A major Hindu pilgrimage festival held every 12 years at four river-bank sites, where millions of devotees gather to bathe in the sacred rivers.
5. Animism
Definition: The belief that non-human entities (animals, plants, inanimate objects) possess a spiritual essence.
Example: Indigenous religions in Africa and the Americas often hold animistic beliefs.
6. Pilgrimage
Definition: A journey to a sacred place for religious reasons.
Example: The Hajj to Mecca in Islam.
7. Cosmogony
Definition: A set of religious beliefs concerning the origin of the universe.
Example: The creation stories in the Bible or the Hindu cosmology.
8. Sunni
Definition: The largest denomination of Islam, following the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad.
Distribution: Predominantly found in countries like Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Turkey.
9. Shi’i (Shiite)
Definition: A branch of Islam that holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad's proper successor was his son-in-law and cousin Ali.
Distribution: Predominantly found in Iran, Iraq, and Bahrain.
10. Sikhism
Definition: A monotheistic religion founded in the 15th century in the Punjab region of India by Guru Nanak.
Beliefs: Combines elements of Hinduism and Islam, emphasizing equality, justice, and community service.
11. Jainism
Definition: An ancient Indian religion that emphasizes non-violence and asceticism.
Beliefs: Jains strive for liberation and spiritual purity through non-violence and self-discipline.
12. Trees and Rocks and Rivers
Significance: Many religions consider natural features like trees, rocks, and rivers as sacred and endowed with spiritual significance.
Examples: The Ganges River in Hinduism, sacred groves in indigenous African religions.
13. Places Associated with Prophets
Example: The city of Mecca, where the Prophet Muhammad was born, or Bethlehem, the birthplace of Jesus Christ.
14. Cemeteries and Treatment of Dead
Christianity: Burial in cemeteries, often with gravestones.
Islam: Burial in simple graves facing Mecca, without elaborate markers.
Hinduism: Cremation along the banks of rivers like the Ganges.
15. Christian Enclaves (Maronites, Coptics)
Maronites: A Christian sect primarily found in Lebanon, with roots in the early Christian monastic tradition.
Coptics: An early Christian sect in Egypt, maintaining their own distinctive liturgical and theological traditions.
Madagascar: Antananarivo, the capital, is a center for Christianity and reflects the colonial history.
Ethnicity Concepts
1. Ethnicity, Race, Nationality
Ethnicity: Shared cultural traits, language, religion, or ancestry.
Race: Socially constructed categories based on physical characteristics.
Nationality: Legal affiliation with a particular country.
2. Ethnic Conflicts in Africa and State Borders
Example: The Rwandan Genocide between Hutus and Tutsis, exacerbated by colonial-era borders.
3. Ethnic Conflict and Cooperation in East Africa
Example: Conflict in South Sudan over ethnic lines and cooperation between different ethnic groups to maintain peace.
4. Nigeria Conflict
Example: Ethnic and religious tensions, particularly between the Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo groups.
5. Basque Independence
Where: The Basque region straddles northern Spain and southern France.
Why: Desire for cultural and political autonomy due to distinct language and cultural identity.
6. Hispanic
Definition: Relating to people of Spanish-speaking origin or descent, particularly those in Latin America and the U.S.
7. Ethnicity Created by Movement
Example: The African diaspora created through the transatlantic slave trade.
8. Ways to Preserve Ethnicity
Examples: Cultural festivals, language preservation programs, and maintaining traditional practices.
9. Apartheid
Definition: A policy or system of segregation or discrimination on grounds of race, particularly in South Africa from 1948 to 1994.
Political Concepts
1. State
Definition: An independent political entity with defined borders and sovereignty.
Example: The United States, France, China.
2. Nation
Definition: A group of people with a common cultural identity, often sharing language, religion, and history.
Example: The Kurds, the Japanese.
3. Stateless Nation
Definition: A nation that does not have its own state.
Example: The Kurds, the Palestinians.
4. Nationless State
Definition: A state that lacks a cohesive national identity or nation.
Example: Somalia, due to its clan-based society and lack of central government.
5. Nation-State
Definition: A state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a specific nation.
Example: Japan, Iceland.
6. Why Taiwan Gets Its Own Section
Reason: Taiwan is a politically contentious area. The People's Republic of China claims Taiwan as part of its territory, while Taiwan operates as a separate political entity with its own government. This makes Taiwan a significant subject in discussions of state sovereignty and international relations.
7. Why Koreas Get Their Own Section
Reason: North Korea and South Korea are divided into two separate states despite sharing a common cultural heritage. The Korean Peninsula's division after World War II and subsequent Korean War has led to vastly different political, economic, and social systems in the two countries.
8. Where Cyprus Is and Why It Is Divided
Location: Cyprus is an island in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Division: Cyprus is divided between the Republic of Cyprus (predominantly Greek Cypriot) and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (recognized only by Turkey) due to a 1974 Turkish invasion following a Greek-led coup.
9. Compact State
Definition: A state with a roughly circular shape, equidistant from the center to any boundary.
Example: Poland.
10. Prorupted State
Definition: A state with a large projecting extension.
Example: Thailand.
11. Fragmented State
Definition: A state that includes several discontinuous pieces of territory.
Example: Indonesia, the Philippines.
12. Landlocked State
Definition: A state without direct access to an ocean, sea, or international waterway.
Example: Bolivia, Switzerland.
13. Perforated State
Definition: A state that completely surrounds another state.
Example: South Africa surrounds Lesotho.
14. Elongated State
Definition: A state with a long and narrow shape.
Example: Chile, Vietnam.
15. Centripetal Forces
Definition: Forces that unify a state.
Example: Nationalism, shared religion, a strong central government.
16. Centrifugal Forces
Definition: Forces that divide a state.
Example: Ethnic divisions, political fragmentation, economic disparities.
17. Balkanization
Definition: The process of fragmentation of a state into smaller regions or states often along ethnic lines.
Example: The breakup of Yugoslavia into smaller countries.
18. Exclave
Definition: A portion of a state geographically separated from the main part by surrounding alien territory.
Example: Alaska (USA).
19. Geopolitics
Definition: The study of the effects of geography (human and physical) on politics and international relations.
Example: The strategic importance of the Middle East due to its oil reserves.
20. Chokepoint
Definition: A geographical feature (sea or land) that an armed force must pass, often resulting in strategic control over the area.
Example: The Strait of Hormuz.
21. MacKinder vs. Spykman
MacKinder’s Heartland Theory: Whoever controls Eastern Europe controls the Heartland; whoever controls the Heartland controls the world.
Spykman’s Rimland Theory: Control of the coastal fringes (Rimland) of Eurasia is the key to controlling the world.
Development Concepts
1. Education’s Effect on Raising Development Levels
Policies: Investing in education increases human capital, leading to higher productivity, innovation, and economic growth. Policies could include funding schools, teacher training, and providing scholarships.
Lowering Development Levels: Underfunding education leads to a lack of skills and innovation, stifling economic progress.
2. Obstacles to Developing Countries
Examples: Political instability, corruption, lack of infrastructure, limited access to education and healthcare, and dependency on agriculture.
3. GDP per Capita
Definition: The total economic output of a country divided by its population, indicating average income.
Example: Higher GDP per capita indicates a higher standard of living.
4. Life Expectancy
Definition: The average number of years a person is expected to live.
Example: Higher life expectancy is often correlated with better healthcare and living conditions.
5. Years of Schooling
Definition: The average number of years of education received by people aged 25 and older.
Example: Longer years of schooling usually correlate with higher literacy rates and better job opportunities.
6. Literacy Rate
Definition: The percentage of people who can read and write at a specified age.
Example: Higher literacy rates indicate better education systems and access to education.
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