Menelik II Ethiopia 

(1890–95)

Context

1889: Treaty of Wuchale; purposeful mistranslation in article 17 declared Ethiopia a protectorate of Italy

Jan 1890: Italy occupies Adawa

1893: Menelik denounces treaty

Dec 1894: War begins, prompted by rebellion of Eritrean chief

1895: Battle of Adawa; decisive 

1896: Peace treaty of Addis Ababa

Arms were a large reason Ethiopia was enabled to resist…

• During the three years between the Italian occupation of Adawa (1890) and Menelik denouncing the Wuchale treaty (1893) Menelik stocked up on arms: Between 1890–1893, Menelik traded for French and Russian firearms and ammunition 

• He was also given muskets by the Italians based on an article in the Treaty of Wuchale (1893) 

• Menelik had 82,000 rifles and 28 cannons

• CC: Italians had the same rifles, as well as an advantage in cannon weaponry

• CCC: Menelik had a larger army 

Ethiopian unity was significant for their decision to resist imperialism…

• Historically, the princedoms of Ethiopia were united under an emperor, after the death of Yohannes in 1889, Menelik swiftly rose to power in 1889

• The Ethiopian Orthodox Church united the country; it was the belief of Ethiopians that their empire was a gift from God and would not be taken away

• Between 1890–1893, Menelik conquered the provinces of Kaffa, Wolano, Sidamo, Bale, and Galla in preparation for the war with the Italians in 1894–1895

• CC: Italy was already dealing with a rebellion from Eritrea (1894) which weakened them; Menelik took an opportunistic attack prompted by this and went north to territory occupied by Italy 

A relatively significant reason for resistance was to retaliate against Italian forcefulness…

• Since 1869, Italy had maintained a colonial presence in the region, and the port of Assab in the Red Sea became her first colony in the region in 1882

• Because of the previous emperor, Yohannes, who was focused on Egypt encroaching, Italy seized Ethiopian territory in 1885 and after his death in 1889

• Menelik at first had a positive relationship with the Italians, who supplied him with firearms and physicians, as well as the ability to seize non-Ethiopian regions, but after being tricked at the Treaty of Wuchale (1889) with article 17, reassuming sovereignty became an important aim

• CC: At first, Italy and Ethiopia under Menelik, as well as Yohannes, had an amicable or neutral relationship

• CC: to evaluate, it is unclear if the translation error between Italian and Amharic was a purposeful attempt to trick Menelik

• CCC: However, Menelik was still motivated to resist Italian imperialism regardless of intention because of his ability

Menelik Ⅱ’s decision to resist European imperialism was motivated by his ability because of the arms he had, as well as the unity of Ethiopia, and to retaliate against Italian forcefulness. So, Menelik was able to launch his attack against Italy occupying territory in 1894 and conclude Italian imperialism in  1896.

Arms were a major reason Menelik was successful…

• During the three years between the Italian occupation of Adawa (1890) and Menelik denouncing the Wuchale treaty (1893) Menelik stocked up on arms

• He was also given muskets by the Italians based on an article in the Treaty of Wuchale (1893) 

• Between 1890–1893, Menelik traded for French and Russian firearms and ammunition 

• Menelik had 82,000 rifles and 28 cannons

• CC: Italians had the same rifles, as well as an advantage in cannon weaponry

• CCC: Menelik had a larger army 

Menelik uniting the country was very significant for Menelik’s success…

• Ethiopia’s common religion is Christianity 

• Ethiopia had many princedoms and provinces, whose combined forces fought off Italy

• Between 1890–1893, Menelik conquered the provinces of Kaffa, Wolano, Sidamo, Bale, and Galla in preparation for the war with the Italians in 1894–1895

• The population of Ethiopia gave Menelik a larger army than the Italians 

  • 100,000 Ethiopian forces versus 17,000 Italian forces in the Battle of Adawa

  • When it came to stopping Italy from taking more land, he had the advantage: Italy occupied Eritrea (1890), the city of Adawa (1890), and Tigray (1895), all in the North; Menelik had mobilized his army, with a stronghold in the south, to march North in September 1895

• CC: Menelik was a conqueror, those provinces had reason to dislike him

• CCC: However, the Eritrean chief Batha Hagos preferred him to Italian occupation and Ethiopians viewed him as a rightful ruler due to his heritage

• CCC: 1892 tithe for soldiers to not steal from peasants augmented his popularity and straightened his army out

The superiority of Ethiopian forces to Italian forces was extremely relevant to Menelik’s success…

• Ethiopian forces had the support of locals and superior geographical knowledge and prowess fighting on their home territory; Italy had little to no maps of Ethiopia and was unprepared to fight on Ethiopian terrain

• CC: It could be said the forces were equal in some regard because they used the same rifles and Italy had some modern amenities like physicians which Menelik lacked, as well as more cannons than Menelik’s army

• CC: Italian inferiority 

Italy was outnumbered (17,000 Italian soldiers versus Menelik’s army of 100,000 soldiers at the Battle of Adawa in 1895) 

In sheer numbers, the Italians were decidedly inferior in terms of military strength, and it would take much more to make a dent in an army of that size 

The reason Menelik Ⅱ was successful in resisting European imperialism was because he put himself in a superior position by gaining arms, uniting the country, and having leverage over the Italians. Therefore, the Treaty of Addis Ababa in 1896 was successful in maintaining Ethiopian sovereignty against European imperialism. 

Mandinka, West Africa

(1881–1898)

The military of Toure was a strong motivator for his resistance against French imperialism…

• Well-trained and organized army

  • Had the strength to declare himself Faama (military leader) in 1874

  • The Mandinka empire had a rigid hierarchy emphasizing loyalty to him and the state: he was head of state as well as the commander-in-chief 

• Effective strategy: 

  • Scorched earth policy

• Arms:

  • There was a developed production chain in the Mandinka empire 

Political aspects of Mandinka society were another definite reason that the Mandinka empire resisted European imperialism…

• Skilled and charismatic leader, with a societal structural ensuring loyalty

• Islam as unifying factor (Al-Mamy)

• Unity: loyalty of Mandinka chiefs

• CC: Some local leaders eventually collaborated with France, like Kangaba

• Ability to subjugate the people of Ivory Coast and create a new empire (1898)

• Toure had a diplomatic alliance with Britain, Sierra-Leone, and Liberia which also provided him with a means to fight the war against France 

Resources that the Mandinka empire had access to were partially responsible for Toure’s decision to resist France…

• Ivory, slaves, gold

  • In 1867 Toure seized gold mines at Bure (Sierra-Leone and Guinea border) 

• Food supplies

Inferior military resources: 

Arms were partially responsible… 

• Brussels convention 1890: British cease selling Breech loaders to Toure

• Because of his scorched earth policy, Toure cut himself off from Liberia and Sierra-Leone, his sources of modern weaponry 

• CC: There was a developed production chain in the Mandinka empire 

• CC: However, even prior to these events, the French had managed to push Toure’s forces out, though with some delays (CCC) caused by Toure’s scorched earth policy 

After the French directly attacked in March 1881, Toure had some victories but the French still penetrated into the kingdom’s interior

Capital (Bissandugu) attacked in June 1882

By 1882, Toure’s forces cannot move through areas controlled by France

Soldiers (inferior numbers) were influential to a larger extent…

• West Africa is a large territory, meaning Toure’s Mandinka forces were spread thin

• Concessions of the most important parts of the Mandinka empire made by Toure demonstrate that he knew could not control the Mandinka empire:

  • 1886: Toure leaves Bure

  • 1887: Gives France control of Niger’s west bank 

  • 1889: Toure leaves the area of Tisinko to Niger river 

• CC: Superior qualities of French soldiers, including numbers

Toure targeted French-aligned African muslim forces out of revenge, demonstrating the Mandinka empire also faced local soldiers

CC: Internal issues, compared to military resources, majorly impacted the downfall…

Brutality employed by Toure

• Scorched earth policy 

• Toure seized power; non-rightful leader (declared himself Faama: military leader in 1874)

• Did not inspire loyalty, leading to his rivals and subjects to collaborate with France

Ethnic tensions

• Retreat into and brutality on non-Mandinka territory; Toure established various anti-French efforts in Kong and Ivory Coast in 1898

• Ethnic diversity and no common religious identity beyond Islam

• CC: Toure’s army was Islamic and his status as a muslim elevated him in the predominantly muslim Mandinka empire (took the title of Al-Mamy: religious head of a muslim empire)

• CCC: Guinea-Bisseau was a section of the Mandinka empire that was not muslim 

• CCC: Clearly not all Muslims supported Toure’s rule, judging by the French-aligned Muslim soldiers Toure would go on to target; it can be seen that a shared religious identity was not enough for many to still see him as brutal

Though inferior military resources to a definite extent contributed to the Mandinka’s failure, internal difficulties and superior French resources played a larger role in Toure’s defeat. 

Herero and Nama, South West Africa

(1903–1904)

Brutality and inflexibility of the colonizing power was an incredibly strong motivator for the resistance of the Nama and Herero against the Germans…

• Including betrayal felt by the Herero and Nama from the actions of the Germans, might have been a factor in their resistance… 

  • 1883: fraudulent purchase of land for Germany, eventual protectorate 

  • The treaty between the Herero and Germany (1885) for Herero protection against the Nama (led by Hendrik Witbooi) was renounced because Germany did not have any case against Witbooi; it was reestablished in 1890 

  • By 1903, the Herero had already ceded a quarter of their land to German settlers, but Germany planned to put a railroad through their remaining territory and place Herero onto native reservations (NO LAND RIGHTS)

  • With good intentions, the governor Theodore Leutwein instituted a policy on debt collection in November 1903

    • Many Herero had taken steep debts from Germans which they could not repay

    • This policy meant that all debts not paid within the year would be voided

    • Therefore, traders began seizing property like cattle or valuables from indebted Herero, in the absence of cash

    • This fueled resentment among the Herero, who saw German officials as sympathetic to moneylenders

• And including brutality from the Germans, which was definitely a strong factor in their decision to resist…

  • Rape of Hererero women frequently occorred ever since Germans settled on their land

    • This sexual violence was called “Verkafferung”

  • In 1903, a German trader (Dietrich) raped and murdered the wife of a chief of a branch among the Herero, but during the first trial was not find guilty, outraging the Herero; though a retrial was rescheduled by Leutwein, governor of the territory

  • In the 1890s and 1900s, Nama and Herero were used as slave laborers by the Germans, who also seized their land and cattle

  • One injustice under the German system was that (according to the German Colonial League) the testimony of one settler was equal to SEVEN Africans

  • Violence against hereros was common among German settlers because of their belief in racial superiority and extermination

Political structures were partially a reason the Herero and Nama were motivated to resist…

• 1885: Chief of the Herero, Maharero rose to power by uniting all the Herero

• Germany helped establish Samuel (son of Maharero) as paramount chief of the Herero in 1890 in exchange for land

Military strength, including tactics and opportunity, were definite reasons the Nama and Herero resisted…

• Opportunity 

  • The Bondelzwarts (a Nama tribe in the South) revolted when German officials mandated gun registration 

  • Leutwin’s forces went south to put down the rebellion; he was not concerned about the north because one Herero clan had put down their weapons

• Tactics

  • 1904: Samuel Herero invades Okahandja; cutting off German links to Windhoek

  • Waldau and Waterberg post offices destroyed

  • Waterberg military station occupied by Herero soldiers

Military weakness / strength of colonizer were a large reason the Nama and Herero failed in their resistance against the Germans…

• The Kaiser sent Trotha as a commander align with thousands of troops

• The Nama were only able to engage Germany for two years because they employed guerilla warfare, but still were not successful and suffered major civilian casualties 

• Germany poisoned the water wells of the Herero and pushed them into the desert, where they starved

Arms, or lack thereof, was definitely a reason the Nama and Herero failed…

• Lack of arms

The brutality of the colonizer was an extremely significant reason the Herero and Nama resistance failed…

• 1894: pacification of the region by German soldiers

• Concentration camps; depletion of 70% to 80% of the Herero population (population of 12,000 within the camps)

  • Daily executions

  • Experimentation 

  • Forced labor

  • Half of all prisoners, usually civilians, are estimated to have died within the camps

• Extremely negative effect on morale

Internal issues were definitely partially responsible for the failure of Herero and Nama resistance…

• 1897 Rinderpest plague: killed 90% of Herero cattle, weakening them economically and dietarily 

• Lack of unity

  • No collaboration between Nama and Herero

  • Collaboration between Nama and Herero