Aristotle's Ethics

How Should I Live?

  • Socrates’ assertion: "The unexamined life is not worth living."

  • Major Philosophical Questions Addressed:

    • What does a good (worthwhile) life look like?

    • How do I live it?

  • Influential Philosophers and Philosophical Traditions:

    • Plato

    • Aristotle

    • Epictetus

    • Buddhism

    • Confucianism

Aristotle

  • Biographical Context:

    • Born: 384-322 BC in Stagira, Macedonia.

    • Student of Plato at the Academy in Athens for 20 years.

    • Founded his own school: The Lyceum.

What Kind of Ethics Is This?

  • Aristotle’s ethical framework:

    • Often referred to as "virtue ethics."

    • Emphasis on living well throughout one’s entire life.

    • Central Question: What kind of person should I become to live well?

    • Ethics as practical:

    • Goal is not just knowledge, but becoming good.

    • Purpose of studying ethics: not merely understanding virtue, but actualizing it.

    • Key Reflective Questions:

    • What does it mean to take responsibility for my character?

    • Am I fulfilling my purpose as a human being?

Teleological Worldview in Aristotle’s Ethics

  • Aristotle views the world through the lens of teleology:

    • Definition of Teleology:

    • Derived from Greek "telos" (end) and "logos" (reason); refers to explanations by reference to purpose, end, goal, or function.

  • Nature seen as inherently purposive:

    • Contrasts with the idea of random, purposeless existence.

  • Notable Principle from “Nicomachean Ethics” (NE):

    • “Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit, is thought to aim at some good.” (388)

    • This "good" is seen as a goal or end.

Hierarchy of Ends

  • Observation by Aristotle: Every action aims at achieving something:

    • Example Chain:

    • Studying → to earn a degree → to secure a job → to live well.

  • Suggests a hierarchical relationship among ends:

    • Each action is conducted for the sake of a higher pursuit.

The Concept of a Final End

  • Aristotle's Argument: There exists a final end, which is the highest good.

  • Importance of this final end:

    • Without it, human desires would be infinite and ultimately pointless.

  • Characteristics of the Highest Good:

    • Final: Chosen for its own sake.

    • Self-sufficient: Provides completeness in life, lacking nothing.

  • Aristotle identifies this final good as happiness.

Understanding Happiness

  • Happiness (Eudaimonia):

    • Defined as living well, flourishing, and perfecting oneself.

  • Inquiry into contemporary meaning of "being happy":

    • How far does common understanding align with Aristotle's views of happiness?

  • Aristotle clarifies that happiness must be pursued:

    • Not just as an end, but as an intrinsic aspect of the human experience.

Common Misconceptions about Happiness

  • Misinterpretations of happiness:

    • Pleasure:

    • Reduces happiness to a bestial existence. Happiness must reflect human distinctiveness.

    • Honours:

    • Depend on external validation and can be lost, compromising the ultimate good.

    • Wealth:

    • Viewed as an instrumental good, desired only for its purchasing power.

  • True happiness cannot be reliant on external factors; must represent a final, complete good.

Achieving Happiness through Function Argument

  • Function Argument:

    • The ultimate good of anything resides in its ability to perform its unique function excellently (virtuously).

  • Human happiness (Eudaimonia) found in:

    • Humans performing their unique function excellently.

  • Queries regarding unique human function:

    • Identifying what constitutes a good human, similar to evaluating the quality of knives or chairs.

Unique Function of Human Beings

  • Rational Activity:

    • Identification of unique function of human beings:

    • Nutrition, growth, sensation, perception, movement are shared with other life forms.

    • Humans distinguish themselves by rational activity.

  • Structure of Human Soul:

    • Comprised of two parts:

    • Irrational Appetitive Part: Desires and emotions.

    • Rational Part: Engages in reasoning.

    • Quote from Aristotle:

    • “…the function of man is an activity of soul which follows or implies a rational principle.” (389)

Rational Activity and Excellence

  • Definition of Good Human Life:

    • Rational activity exhibited excellently/virtuously.

  • Requisites for Virtuous Life:

    • Activity must be sustained over time and represent a complete life.

Understanding Virtue

  • Definition of Virtue:

    • Ultimately, good is found in performing one’s function excellently (virtuously).

  • Excellence = Virtue (Aretē):

    • Refers to being excellent at fulfilling one’s purpose.

  • Actualization of potential for reason:

    • Requires consistent exercise and intention to develop excellence.

Types of Virtue

  • Intellectual Virtue:

    • Involves habits and attitudes that enable individuals to uncover truth.

    • Engages with unchanging, universal truths.

    • Quote: “Intellectual virtue owes both its birth and its growth to teaching (for which reason it requires experience and time).” (389)

  • Moral Virtue:

    • Focuses on developing character excellences.

    • Characterized as stable states concerning choice, existing between two extremes (excess and deficiency).

    • Determined by reason.

Characteristics of Moral Virtue

  • Concern:

    • Centered on actions and passions, which can exhibit:

    • Excess: Failure in virtue

    • Defect: Another form of failure

    • Intermediate: Expression of success and virtue.

  • Correctness of feeling:

    • Applying the right feelings (e.g., anger, confidence) at the right times and objects, directed toward appropriate individuals, motivate moral virtue.

Seeking the Mean

  • Aiming for the Mean in Moral Virtue:

    • The mean serves as a balance between two vices, mutually responsive to context.

  • **Three Areas of Application: **

    • 1. Actions

    • 2. Passions

  • Context-Sensitive Balance:

    • Virtue is not the average; it corresponds to an excellent balance relevant to the situation.

  • Exceptions:

    • Certain feelings and actions do not allow for a mean (e.g., envy, malice).

Examples of Virtue and Vices

  • Table of Virtue and Vices:

    • Deficiency (Vice) | Mean (Virtue) | Excess (Vice)

    • --- | --- | ---

    • Cowardice | Courage | Rashness

    • Insensibility | Temperance | Self-indulgence

    • Unirascibility | Good Temper | Irascibility

    • Quarrelsome | Friendliness | Flattery

    • Self-deprecation | Truthfulness | Boastfulness

    • Boorishness | Wit | Buffoonery

Acquiring Moral Virtue

  • Development Process:

    • Acquired through practice, akin to arts; we become virtuous through action.

    • Engaging in just acts leads to development into just individuals.

  • Significance of Habits:

    • Importance of moral training from childhood.

Key Components in Developing Moral Virtue

  • Moral virtue as skill:

    • Cultivated through habitual practice rather than inherent nature.

  • Actions Over Nature:

    • Virtue achieved through consistent virtuous actions;

  • Path to moral virtue involves:

    • 1. Aiming for the mean

    • 2. Following moral exemplars

    • 3. Habitual practice to align desires with reason

  • Pleasure as Motivation:

    • Must be oriented towards good, not neutral in itself.

Role of Practical Wisdom (Phronesis)

  • Defines ability to navigate moral choices effectively.

  • Key Characteristics:

    • Requires judgment; involves moral perception and experience.

    • Distinction: Not merely cleverness but deliberate judgment on living well.

Attributes of a Morally Virtuous Individual

  • Stable Character Trait:

    • A disposition to consistently choose the mean;

  • Characteristics of Virtuous Person:

    • Recognizes the right action (perfected reasoning).

    • Acts out of intrinsic motivation.

    • Takes pleasure in virtuous actions (habituation).

    • Desires harmonize with virtue.

  • Distinction Among States:

    • Differentiates between continence, incontinence, virtue, and vice (refer to Driver's discussion pp 272-273).

Critical Reflection on Aristotle’s Ethics

  • Examine personal connections to Aristotle’s ethics:

    • Strengths: What useful insights arise from Aristotle’s recommendations?

    • Challenges Raised by Julia Driver’s Critique:

    • Questions on practical guidance provided by Aristotle.

    • Examining complexities of applying Aristotle’s virtues in moral dilemmas.

Key Discussion Questions

  • Does Virtue Ethics Provide Sufficient Action Guidance?

    • Investigate practical implications of being virtuous (e.g., honesty).

  • Handling Conflicts Between Virtues:

    • How to deal with dilemmas (e.g., honesty vs. kindness).

Stability of Character Traits

  • Aristotelian View: Virtuous individuals possess stable character traits (not momentary instances).

  • Counterpoint by Driver: Experimental data reflects situational influences on behavior.

  • Response Strategies: Consider defending Aristotle’s conceptualization of stable virtue against situational arguments.

Examination of Essentialism in Aristotle's Philosophy

  • Aristotle’s Notion of Essential Nature:

    • Raises complex philosophical inquiries:

    • Do humans possess an intrinsic essence?

    • Is rationality the absolute basis of being a 'good' human?

Challenges with Following Virtuous Persons

  • Foundational Issues:

    • Starting learners risk emulating non-virtuous individuals.

  • Potential Biases:

    • Virtue may reflect societal conventions fraught with bias.

  • Defensive Responses: Analyze how one might respond to uphold Aristotle’s ethical framework in light of these challenges.