Bio Ch 1


  • what is the relative size of atoms to other units of matter?

    • Smallest stable unit

  • what is the specificity of an atom?

    • Its charge correlates to its specific element

  • what are the 2 components of an atom’s structure?

    • Nucleus and orbitals

  • what is inside of an atom’s nucleus?

    • Protons and neutrons

  • what is the relative energy of the furthest orbital from the nucleus?

    • The furthest orbital has the most negative charge

  • what is in the furthest orbital from the nucleus

    • Valence electrons



  • what is the function of valence electrons?

    • Bind to the valence electrons of other atoms

  • why is 8 the magic number for valence electrons?

    • 8 is the most valence electrons that can be in the valence orbital, and therefore the most amount of bonds that can be formed between atoms, and therefore makes for the most stable bond between atoms



  • What is an ion?

    • An atom that in unstable; has charge desu

  • Are ions stable?

    • nomeggies

  • What is a Cation?

    • positive

  • What is an anion?

    • negative



  • what are the 4 main elements of life?

    • Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

  • what would happen without the main elements of life?

    • Life would not be able to survive cuz it wouldnt be able to produce anything



  • What makes carbon inorganic?

    • It is not naturally occurring but instead the product of a reaction

  • How is carbon produced?

    • Produced by photosynthesis by plants, released back into environment when animal dies

  • What is the function of carbon in terms of biomolecules?

    • Carbon is used to form bonds - has 4 valence electrons. Is therefore used to in EVERY BIOMOLECULE (carbs, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids)

  • What quality makes carbon so versatile in bonding?

    • Has 4 valence electrons

  • Should you look for “C” atoms in molecule structure?

    • Nomeggies, is implied desu



  • What makes nitrogen inorganic?

    • Not inherently in atmosphere

  • How is nitrogen produced?

    • Produced by DECOMPOSERS when an organism dies

  • What does nitrogen produce?

    • Nucleic acids, ALSO proteins



  • What does phosphorous produce?

    • Nucleic acids, PHOSPHOLIPIDS

  • Is phosphorous one of the 4 main elements of life?

    • no



  • What is electronegativity the measurement of?

    • How negative an element is, and therefore how much it attracts other electrons to it (valence electrons of other atoms)

  • What are the 2 important electronegative elements for biology?

    • Oxygen, nitrogen



  • What is electropositivity the measurement of?

    • Not how positive in charge an element, but how little electronegativity an element has, and therefore that elements ability to donate electrons to form anions of other elements

  • Are electropositive elements typically positive in charge?

    • No, still negative just less negative than others



  • What causes a covalent bond to form?

    • Just when 2 atoms share electrons

  • What happens to energy when a covalent bond is form?

    • Energy is stored

  • What happens to energy when a covalent bond is broken?

    • Energy is released



  • What causes an ionic bond to form?

    • Transfer of valence electrons from a metal to a non metal

  • Compared to covalent bonds, how strong are ionic bonds?

    • Relatively weak

  • What happens to ionic bonds in water?

    • They dissolve

  • Are ionic bonds common in biology?

    • no



  • What causes a molecule to be polar?

    • The unequal sharing of electrons across a covalent bond

    • Is a consequence of electronegativity when the element binding to the e. Neg element is either very small or very electropositive

  • Across what kind of bond does polarity occur?

    • Covalent bonds

  • What is polarity of a consequence of? (hint: is a consequence of a characteristic of a molecule)

    • electronegativity

  • So in total, what what kind of molecule binds what different kind of molecule to cause polarity?

    • Small molecules or electropositive molecules

  • What is the overall charge of a polar molecule?

    • neutral

  • What are the charges of the poles of a polar molecule?

    • Partially negative and partially positive



  • What does a partially negative element attract?

    • electrons

  • Therefore, is a partially negative element electronegative or electropositive?

    • negative



  • Are there many or few electrons surrounding a partially positive electron?

    • few



  • What are hydrogen bonds really?

    • Weak attractions

  • What 3 atoms can hydrogens bond together?

    • Oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine

  • Are hydrogens partially positive or negative?

    • POSITIVE

  • How does this partial charge of hydrogens allow hydrogen bonds to form?

    • Because O, N, and F are highly electronegative, and therefore partially POSITIVE hydrogens attract to them → remember that opposites attract here



  • If energy seems to have been lost in a reaction, what really happened to the energy?

    • It was given off as heat

  • Can a molecule lose atoms in a reaction?

    • nomeggies



  • How does water facilitate transport in the body?

    • It transports blood in animals, SAP in plants

  • What type of bonds is water made of? (think: H2O)

    • Hydrogen bonds

  • Is water polar or nonpolar? How does the structure of water prove this?

    • Polar, because it has a partial pos end of hydrogens and a partial neg end of oxygen

  • Can water form hydrogen bonds? If so, with what kinds of molecules can it bond with?

    • Yes, it forms h bonds w/ other polar molecules



  • What is cohesion?

    • When 2 water molecules bond to each other

  • What other water properties does cohesion allow for?

    • Capillary action, surface tension



  • What is adhesion?

    • When water sticks (attracts) to a molecule that is not water, like an object’s surface

  • What is an example of adhesion?

    • Water sticking to car window



  • What is capillary action?

    • When water is drawn up the roots of plants

  • What causes capillary action (2 answers, both needed)?

    • Cohesion and adhesion are both needed for water to “climb”

  • Where is capillary action used?

    •  In the roots of plants



  • What is surface tension?

    • When water molecules attract to each other on the surface of a body of water

  • In surface tension, what water surface characteristic causes hydrogen bonds to strengthen?

    • cohesion

  • What characteristic of hydrogen bonds makes hydrogen bonds collectively strong on the surface of a body of water?

    • The constant breaking and reforming of hydrogen bonds allow for water to be resistant to breaking under the weight of light objects



  • What is high specific heat capacity?

    • The high temperature to which water can resist before changing in temperature

  • How do collective hydrogen bonds in water affect water’s heat resistance?

    • Because water molecules bind to each other and constantly break and reform, they are collectively strong → takes a lot of heat to break ALL of the bonds

  • What is temperature the measurement of?

    • The movement of molecules

  • What does it mean when a molecule has absorbed more heat, molecularly?

    • That the molecules are moving faster

  • What is high heat of vaporization?

    • That it takes a lot of heat to convert water into a gas

  • How do collective hydrogen bonds in water affect water evaporating?

    • Because water molecules bind together, it takes a lot of energy to convert all of them → collective strength



  • What is evaporation?

    • When water converts to a gas

  • What is evaporative cooling? (Think temperature-wise)

    • Temperature of water DECREASES when it converts to a gas

  • Why is ice less dense than water, in terms of hydrogen bond structure?

    • Because hydrogen bonds of ice dont move (form a lattice structure)



  • What is a solvent?

    • Something that dissolves substances

  • What makes water a good solvent of other molecules?

    • Because the hydrogen bonds overcome and replace ionic bonds, therefore breaking down and dissolving the bonds of that substance

  • Chemically, how does water break apart other molecules?

    • Replace ionic bonds with its own hydrogen bonds taht break asnd reform and repeat and therefore dissolve


  • What are the four main biomolecules?

    • Carbs, proteins, lipids, nu acids

  • What element of life are biomolecules made by (in part)?

    • carbon

  • Why is this element fit for biomolecules to be based with?

    • 4 valence electrons - can form a lot of bonds

  • What are monomers?

    • Single subunit of a molecule

  • What are dimers?

    • Two bonded monomers

  • What are polymers?

    • Many monomers bonded together



  • What is biomolecular metabolism?

    • The breaking down and storing of biomolecules

  • What are the 2 functions of bio. Meta?

    • To store and release energy

  • What is a catabolic reaction?

    • release

  • What is an anabolic reaction?

    • store



  • How does hydrolysis occur?

    • Water is added to a substance to break it down

  • What kind of protein is required for hydrolysis to occur?

    • Enzymes add water into reaction of molecules

  • Is hydrolysis catabolic or anabolic?

    • catabolic

  • What is exogonic?

    • A reaction that involves a net release of energy



  • How does dehydration synthesis occur?

    • The removal of water from a substance, and therefore the bonding of molecules

  • What kind of protein is required for dehydration synthesis to occur?

    • Enzymes remove water

  • Is D.S/ catabolic or anabolic?

    • anabolic

  • What is endogonic?

    • A reaction involving the net investment of energy



  • What are the 4 macromolecules?

    • Carbs, proteins, lipids, nu acids

  • What are the monomers of carbohydrates?

    • monosaccharides

  • What are the bonds of carbohydrates?

    • Glycosidic bonds

  • Mono of lipids?

    • Fatty acids and glycerol

  • Bonds of lipids?

    • Ester bonds

  • Mono of proteins?

    • Amino acids

  • Bonds of proteins?

    • Peptide bonds

  • Mono of Nu Acid?

    • nucleotide

  • Bonds of Nu Acid?

    • Phosphodiester bonds



  • Monosaccharides make what biomolecule?

    • carbohydrates

  • What is the monosaccharide-specific name for bonds connecting monos? What type of bond is that?

    • Glycosidic bonds

  • What do multiple, bonded monosaccharides make up? (3 names, 1 already answered)

    • Carbohydrates, polysaccharides, complex sugars

  • How can we tell a molecule is a monosaccharide? (How as in its name)

    • ose

  • What is shape of a monosaccharide?

    • A carbon ring w/ oxygen and hydrogen

  • What 3 elements make a monosaccharide?

    • Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen

  • What is a hydronyl group?

    • hydrogen

  • What is a hydroxyl group?

    • Hydrogen and oxygen

  • At what element will glycosidic bonds meet?

    • oxygen

  • What are monosaccharides a major source of?

    • Cellular energy



  • Amino Acids make what biomolecule?

    • proteins

  • What is the structure of many, bonded amino acids? How are these structures unique?

    • They form long amino acid chains

  • What are the 3 components of an amino acid?

    • An amino group, a carboxyl group, and a unique R group

  • What elements make an amino group?

    • Nitrogen and hydrogen

  • What elements make up a carboxyl group?

    • Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen (carbon + a hydroxyl and hydronyl)

  • What kind of bond links amino acids in a protein?

    • Peptide bonds - is covalent

  • What is the function of an R group for a single amino acid?

    • It gives the amino acid its properties and unique characteristics

  • What are the possible characteristics of an R group?

    • Polar, nonpolar, negative, positive, uncharged, hydrophobic, hydrophilic

  • How does R group interactions contribute to a protein’s function?

    • The r groups of amino acids have unique interactions between their unique characteristics, making that protein unique by each of its interactions. One different amino acid means an entirely different protein. Therefore, these interactions make SPECIFIC STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE PROTEIN



  • Are lipids polar and hydrophilic, or are they nonpolar and hydrophobic?

    • Nonpolar and hydrophobic

  • What are the 3 types of lipids?

    • Fats, phospholipids, steroids

  • What monomers make lipids?

    • Fatty acids, glycerol

  • What bonds make lipids

    • Ester bonds

  • What is the structure of these combined monomers that make lipids?

    • They form long hydrocarbon chains



  • What makes a fatty acid saturated?

    • Its hydrocarbon chain is formed straight because the fatty acids only form SINGLE bonds with one another

  • What is the typical form of saturated fatty acids at room temperature? Why?

    • It is solid at room temperature because the straight structure makes the pack closer together



  • What makes a fatty acid unsaturated?

    • Chain bends because there is one more or more double bond between the fatty acids

  • What is the typical form of unsaturated fatty acids at room temperature? Why?

    • The bent structure makes them further apart, so they are liquid at room temperature



  • What type of lipid are triglycerides? (Triglycerides and this are synonymous)

    • fats

  • What is the structure of a triglyceride?

    • 3 fatty acids + a glycerol acids

  • What determines whether a triglyceride is saturated or unsaturated?

    • The structure of the fatty acids it contains



  • What is the structure of a phospholipid?

    • Has a polar head and a nonpolar tail

  • What makes the tails of a phospholipid tail? What does this tell us about (insert previous answer)?

    • The hydrocarbon chain. This tells us that lipids and triglycerides are always nonpolar and hydrophobic



  • What monomers make up Nu. Acids?

    • nucleotides

  • What is the shape and structure of a Nucleotide?

    • Are made of a phosphate group (w/ hydroxyl group), a 5 carbon ring, and a nitrogenous base

  • What bonds make Nucleic acids?

    • Phosphodiester bonds that are covalent

  • What are the 4 nitrogenous bases?

    • Adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine

  • What are the nitrogenous base pairings?

    • C to g, a to g

  • What are the 2 main Nucleic acids?

    •  Dna and rna



  • What are the 3 components of a nucleotide?

    • P group, 5 carbon ring, nitrogen base

  • What links the 3 parts of a nucleotide?

    • Phosphodiester bonds

  • What makes nucleotides unique?

    • Their nitrogenous base

  • What is the function of a nucleotide?

    • Nucleotides store genetic material

  • What elements make up a nucleotide?

    • chonp



  • What is the shape of DNA (is this structure always)

    • Double helix

  • What polymers make up DNA? What monomers make up those polymers?

    • Nucleic acids

  • What bonds hold DNA together?

    • Phosphodiester bonds bind nucleotides to one another, hydrogen bonds join nitrogenous bases

  • How many carbons are in DNA?

    • 5

  • How are the carbons of DNA numbered?

    • w/ directionality: from 5 prime to 1 prime

  • Where is and what is the function of the 5 prime?

    • The 5 prime is between the p group and the carbon ring, and bonds the carbon to the phosphate group

  • Where is and what is the function of the 3 prime?

    • The 3’ is at the hydroxyl group, and bonds to the p group of adjacent nucleotides

  • Where is and what is the function of the 1 prime?

    • Is at the carbon ring below the n base, bonding the ring to the base

  • What does it means that DNA is antiperallel?

    • That the double helix features one chain of nucleotides from 5’ to 1’, and an opposite, parallel chain from 1’ to 5’

  • What forms of the sugar backbone of a DNA strand?

    • The covalent bonds between nucleotides

  • What kind of bonds hold together the nitrogenous bases?

    • hydrogen

  • What kind of bonds hold together the nucleotides on the sugar backbone? What are these called for nucleotides, specifically?

    • Covalent - p.di.ester

  • What are the 2 base pairings?

    • A to T, C to G

  • What are the pyrimidines?

    • C, U, T

  • What are the purines?

    • A, G

  • Can a purine bind to a purine?

    • Nomeggies, purines bind to pyrimidines always

  • What is the the function of DNA?

    • Stores our genetic conde

  • What does “deoxyribose” refer to, chemically?

    • Sugar missing oxygen

  • Where is DNA made?

    • In the nucleus



  • Where is DNA made?

    • In the nucleus

  • Where is DNA found in Eukaryotes?

    • nucleus

  • Where is DNA found in Prokaryotes?

    • Cytoplasm floating around

  • What shape is DNA in Eukaryotes?

    • linear

  • What shape is DNA in Prokaryotes?

    • circular



  • What is the shape of RNA?

    • Single strand, not a double helix

  • What is the function of RNA?

    • Synthesizes proteins

  • What base does Uracil replace in RNA?

    • thymine

  • Where is RNA made?

    • In the nucleus

  • Were is RNA found?

    • cytoplasm



  • Which of the 4 elements of life breaks down into the most energy?

    • lipids

  • Which of the 4 elements of life break down into the same amount of energy?

    • Proteins and carbs

  • Which of the 4 elements of life break down into no energy?

    • Nu acids



  • What are the 3 functions of carbohydrates?

    • Store energy, form cell membrane, break down into energy

  • What are the 3 functions of lipids?

    • Store energy, form cell membrane, break down into energy

  • What are 3 functions of proteins?

    • Catalyze fractions, form cell membrane, break down into energy

  • What is the 1 function of Nucleic Acids?

    • Store genetic code for our traits → the acid is the code



  • What are proteins used for in cell functions?

    • everything

  • That makes the 20 amino acids different?

    • R groups

  • What elements are used to make all proteins?

    • chon

  • What binds together amino acids in proteins?

    • Peptide bonds

  • What is the shape of binded amino acids?

    • Amino group, carboxyl group, r group → form chains of a. acids

  • What is the polymer of amino acids?

    • proteins

  • What chemical process bonds amino acids?

    • dehydration synthesis forms peptide bonds

  • Between what components of two amino acids do bonds form?

    • Amino groups and carboxyl groups

  • Given the previous two questions, make an equation for peptide bonds.

    • Amino + carboxyl - water = bond



  • What does it mean that proteins have directionality?

    • Chains of amino acids start w/ N terminus and end w/ C terminus

  • What is the first amino acid called in an amino acid chain?

    • N terminus

  • What is the last amino acid called?

    • C terminus

  • Which amino acid component is vacant at the N-Terminus?

    • Amino group

  • Which amino acid component is vacant at the C-Terminus?

    • Carboxyl group

  • What is similar in all amino acids? (One structure and one molecule)

    • They all have the peptide backbone including the Amino group and carboxyl group, also all have a central carbon

  • What is different in all amino acids?

    • R group



  • What monomers make up polysaccharides?

    • monosaccharides

  • What bonds those monomers?

    • Glycosidic bonds

  • What is the structure of many of these bonded monomers?

    • Form chains that either linear or branches

  • What is a linear polysaccharide?

    • Straight line

  • What is the function of a linear polysaccharide?

    • Form structure of organism like cellulose in a plant

  • What is a branched polysaccharide?

    • The chain branches off from its side

  • What is the function of a branched polysaccharide?

    • Branched = stores energy



  • What are the 4 structures of a protein?

    • Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

  • How do these structures determine the function of a protein?

    • Interactions of amino acids at these different levels dtermine the proteins function


  • What is the shape of a protein’s primary structure?

    • A chain of amino acids

  • What causes the primary structure of a protein?

    • The order of the amino acids

  • To what extent has a protein folded during primary structure?

    • Not at all

  • What monosaccharide component determines the protein’s folding at following structures?

    • The r group interactions of the the acids

  • What does the previous answer tell us about what molecular characteristics influence a protein’s folding?

    • Proteins form different shapes while folding due to the pulls of their characteristics such as polarity, charge, and interactions w/ water



  • What occurs during the secondary structure?

    • The protein begins to fold

  • Why does this occur?

    • Due to hydrogen bonding between amino acid backbones - the part w/o the R group

  • What kind of bonding occurs?

    • H bond

  • What is the amino acid backbone?

    • w/ no r group

  • What two kinds of folding occurs in secondary structure?

    • Alpha helixes and B sheets


  • What is the shape of a protein in tertiary structure?

    • Begins to fold in polypeptides

  • What causes tertiary structure to occur?

    • Interactions between alpha helixes and beta sheets

  • How does secondary structure proteins influence tertiary structure shape?

    • The different characteristics of the helixes and sheets due to the r groups that make up the acids bonding them determine how the protein begins forming in tertiary structure

  • To what extent are quaternary proteins functional?

    • They can be fully functional here

  • What is it called when environmental factors change the shape of a protein, and therefore disable it’s function?

    • denaturation

  • How the previous answer affecting R groups can be damaging to Tertiary structure proteins?

    • If the R groups can’t interact due to a change in environment and therefore lose function, the protein will lose function


  • What causes quaternary structure to occur?

    • Interactions between polypeptides

  • Can quaternary structure proteins denature like tertiary structure proteins can?

    • yes

  • Do all proteins reach quaternary structure?

    • no