How have changes in technology influenced political communication and behavior?**  

- Technology allows faster and more direct communication (e.g., social media, emails). Politicians use data to target voters, mobilize support, and shape public opinion. However, it also spreads misinformation and intensifies polarization.  

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### Participation in Politics  

Why do levels of participation and influence in politics vary?  

- Socioeconomic status, education, voter laws, and access to resources affect participation. Young, low-income, and minority voters often face more barriers.  

How effective are the various methods of political participation in shaping public policies?  

- Voting directly impacts elections. Lobbying and protests can be more influential on specific policies, while petitions raise awareness but have less direct impact.  

How have the 15th, 17th, 19th, 24th, and 26th Amendments expanded opportunities for political participation?  

- 15th Amendment: Gave African American men the right to vote.  

- 17th Amendment: Allowed direct election of Senators.  

- 19th Amendment: Granted women voting rights.  

- 24th Amendment: Banned poll taxes.  

- 26th Amendment: Lowered voting age to 18.  

What is the difference between the 4 different voting models?  

- Rational Choice: Voting based on personal benefit.  

- Retrospective: Voting based on past performance.  

- Prospective: Voting based on future promises.  

- Party-Line: Voting consistently with one’s political party.  

How do state Voter Registration and Voter ID laws influence voter turnout rates?  

- Strict laws lower turnout, especially for minorities. Simplified registration increases participation.  

Compare the voter turnout rates in midterm elections and presidential elections.  

- Presidential Elections: ~60% turnout.  

- Midterm Elections: ~40% turnout due to lower visibility and perceived stakes.  

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### Political Parties and Linkage Institutions  

What is a linkage institution? Examples?  

- Organizations connecting citizens to government, like political parties, media, interest groups, and elections.  

What roles do political parties play in American government and politics?  

- They recruit candidates, organize elections, create platforms, and mobilize voters.  

How are the Democratic and Republican party platforms similar? Different?  

- Similarities: Focus on economic growth and national security.  

- Differences: Democrats emphasize social welfare; Republicans prioritize limited government and tax cuts.  

What is a candidate-centered campaign?  

- Campaigns focus on the individual, not their party, emphasizing personality, image, and direct voter outreach.  

How do parties use communication technology, social media, and voter-data management systems?  

- They use technology for personalized outreach, fundraising, and mobilizing voters, employing social media to engage specific demographics.  

What barriers or obstacles hurt third-party and independent candidates?  

- Lack of funding, minimal media coverage, ballot access challenges, and the winner-take-all system.  

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### Interest Groups  

What role do interest groups play in American politics?  

- They influence policy through lobbying, grassroots campaigns, and electioneering.  

What is the iron-triangle theory? Issue network theory?  

- Iron Triangle: Stable, mutually beneficial relationships between Congress, bureaucracy, and interest groups.  

- Issue Network: Fluid alliances around specific policy issues.  

What resources do interest groups have?  

- PACs: Fund candidates.  

- Lobbyists: Directly influence policymakers.  

- Grassroots: Mobilize public opinion.  

- Litigation: Challenge laws in court.  

What is the free-rider problem with interest groups?  

- People benefit from group actions without actively participating, making it harder for groups to sustain membership and funding.  

How are political parties and interest groups similar? Different?  

- Similarities: Mobilize supporters and influence policy.  

- Differences: Political parties aim to win elections, while interest groups focus on specific issues.  

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### Elections  

What advantages do incumbents have in elections?  

- Incumbents benefit from name recognition, established networks, fundraising, and past performance.  

What is the difference between a primary and caucus? An open and closed primary?  

- Primary: Statewide voting process.  

  - Open Primary: All voters can participate.  

  - Closed Primary: Only party members can vote.  

- Caucus: Local meetings where party members discuss and vote.  

Why are Iowa and New Hampshire so important in the presidential election process?  

- As early contests, they set momentum and influence media coverage and campaign funding.  

What is the winner-take-all system? Why is it controversial?  

- The candidate with the most votes in a state wins all its electoral votes. It limits third-party influence and can result in a president who loses the popular vote.  

What is a critical/realigning election?  

- Elections that shift political coalitions and party dominance (e.g., 1932 New Deal Coalition).  

Why are campaign costs increasing? How does this influence elections?  

- Costs rise due to media, advertising, and technology. This favors wealthy candidates and donors, limiting access for others.  

What did the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002 do?  

- Limited soft money and required transparency in political ads.  

What does the Federal Election Commission (FEC) do?  

- Regulates campaign finance and enforces election laws.  

How has the Citizens United v. FEC (2010) decision impacted elections?  

- Allowed unlimited corporate and union spending, increasing the influence of Super PACs in elections.  

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### Media in Politics  

What is horse-race journalism? What effect does it have on citizens?  

- Focuses on poll standings and campaign drama rather than issues. It can misinform voters and prioritize spectacle over substance.