Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
What is Psychology?
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of the mind and behavior.
It involves forming and testing hypotheses guided by theories through experimental studies.
Psychology is empirical, meaning it is based on measurable and observable data and has bio-, psycho-, and social components.
Etymology of Psychology
The term "psychology" derives from:
Psyche: refers to the human soul, mind, or spirit.
-ology: the scientific study of something.
Thus, psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior.
Psychologists investigate various aspects of the human experience, including:
Basic workings of the human brain.
Consciousness.
Memory.
Language.
Reasoning.
Personality.
Mental health.
Applications of Psychology
Psychology can help us:
Help others.
Understand people.
Enhance our general education.
HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
Major Psychological Schools of Thought
Structuralism: Focuses on understanding conscious experience through introspection.
Key figure: Wilhelm Wundt
Functionalism: Emphasizes the role of mental processes that help individuals adapt to their environment.
Key figure: William James
Psychoanalytic Theory: Stresses the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.
Key figure: Sigmund Freud
Gestalt Psychology: Concerned with perceiving wholes rather than just the sum of parts.
Key figures: Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler
Behaviorism: Focuses on observing and controlling behavior.
Key figures: Pavlov, Watson, Skinner
Humanism: Highlights the innate potential for good in all humans.
Key figures: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers
Cognitive Psychology: Focuses on the role of cognition in understanding behavior.
Key figures: Albert Ellis, Aaron Beck
KEY FIGURES IN PSYCHOLOGY
Wilhelm Wundt (Structuralism)
Considered one of the founders of psychology.
Established the first psychological research laboratory.
Emphasized structuralism, which is the understanding of mental processes through introspection: Introspection is the examination of one's own conscious experience, allowing for breakdown into component parts.
William James (Functionalism)
The first American psychologist and a key figure in establishing functionalism.
Functionalism emphasizes how mental activities contribute to basic environmental survival by focusing on the purpose and function of behavior.
Sigmund Freud (Psychoanalytic Theory)
Founder of psychoanalytic theory, which dominated the field for decades.
Explored mental illness termed “hysteria” and “neurosis.”
Theorized that many issues arise from the unconscious mind, which can be accessed via:
Dream analysis.
Free association.
Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes unconscious influences and childhood experiences on behavior.
Gestalt Psychology
Developed by Kohler, Koffka, & Wertheimer, who fled Nazi Germany.
The term "Gestalt" means "whole" in German.
Focuses on how parts of a sensory experience relate to one another, influencing perception.
Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov (Classical Conditioning)
Discovered classical conditioning.
Studied reflexes and demonstrated:
Unconditioned Stimulus (food) leads to an Unconditioned Response (salivation).
Conditioned to respond to a Conditioned Stimulus (bell) after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (food).
John B. Watson (Behaviorism)
Known as the father of behaviorism, stated that the objective analysis of the mind is impossible.
Focused on observable behavior and methods to control it, including famous conditioning experiments like Little Albert, instilling fear of certain objects in a child.
B.F. Skinner (Operant Conditioning)
Studied how behavior is shaped by consequences.
Related to reinforcement and punishment as key factors for modifying behavior through operant conditioning.
Humanism
Emerged as a response to the determinism of Freudian psychoanalysis and the mechanistic perspective of behaviorism.
Sometimes called the “third force” in psychology, humanism emphasizes innate human goodness and potential for growth.
Abraham Maslow (Humanism)
Introduced a hierarchy of human needs that motivate behavior:
Basic needs: food, water, shelter.
Higher-level needs: social needs emerge once basic needs are fulfilled.
Carl Rogers (Humanism)
Developed client-centered therapy that profoundly influenced clinical practice.
Key components of therapy involve the therapist exhibiting:
Empathy.
Genuineness.
Unconditional positive regard.
Cognitive Psychology
Influenced by Noam Chomsky, whose work led to the cognitive revolution.
Emphasized the importance of understanding cognition (thought processes) to grasp fully human behavior.
Focus on interactions between cognition, emotion, and behavior by psychologists like Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck.
DIVERSITY IN PSYCHOLOGY
Historically, psychology has been dominated by white male figures, leading to limited perspectives and heteronormative assumptions.
Current trends show a growing multicultural focus and increased attention to:
Race and ethnicity.
Gender.
Diverse sexualities and identities.
Psychologists are also becoming more diverse.
SUBFIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Major Branches of Psychology
Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology
Sensation and Perception
Cognitive Psychology
Developmental Psychology
Personality Psychology
Social Psychology
Health Psychology
Industrial-Organizational Psychology
Sports and Exercise Psychology
Clinical & Counseling Psychology
Forensic Psychology
Biopsychology
Examines how the nervous system (especially the brain) influences behavior.
Evolutionary psychology looks at ultimate biological causes of behavior, studying:
Sensory and motor systems.
Sleep patterns.
Drug use and abuse.
Ingestive behaviors.
Reproductive behaviors.
Neurodevelopment.
Nervous system plasticity.
Genetics and biological correlates of psychological disorders.
Sensation & Perception
Illustrates how different interpretations of sensory information can occur, using the example of a duck or rabbit illusion.
Sensation: refers to sensory input (sights, sounds, touch, smell, taste).
Perception: entails the subjective experience influenced by our focus, past experiences, and cultural backgrounds.
Cognitive Psychology
Focuses on mental processes that underlie behavior, including:
Memory.
Attention.
Problem-solving.
Language.
Developmental Psychology
Studies evolving physical and mental processes through aging and maturation.
Analyzes skills developed during growth such as:
Moral reasoning.
Cognitive skills.
Social skills.
Notably associated with Jean Piaget and his theories of learning through development.
Personality Psychology
Investigates unique behaviors and thought patterns defining individuals.
Identifies personality traits and seeks to comprehend individual uniqueness, prominently utilizing the Five Factor Model.
Social Psychology
Analyzes how individuals interact and relate to one another, affecting behaviors like:
Prejudice.
Attraction.
Interpersonal conflicts.
Obedience.
Health Psychology
Explores how biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors influence health (biopsychosocial model).
Considers how health is influenced by:
Genetics.
Behaviors.
Relationships.
Stress.
Personality traits.
Industrial-Organizational (I-O) Psychology
Applies psychological principles in organizational settings, focusing on:
Personnel management.
Organizational structure.
Workplace environment.
Sports & Exercise Psychology
Studies psychological factors impacting sports and physical performance, including:
Motivation.
Performance anxiety.
Overall mental well-being.
Clinical & Counseling Psychology
Cognitive-behavioral therapists emphasize the interplay between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Focus on diagnosing and treating psychological disorders and problematic behavior patterns.
Forensic Psychology
Engages with the justice system by assessing mental competency for trials, offering sentencing recommendations, and advising on eyewitness testimonies.
Requires comprehensive knowledge of legal systems.
CAREERS IN PSYCHOLOGY
Degree Requirements and Career Options
With a Doctorate in Psychology
Careers include:
Teaching.
Research.
Clinical psychologist.
Counselor.
School psychologist.
With a Master's in Psychology/Counseling
Various clinical and counseling positions are available.
With a Bachelor's Degree in Psychology
Top occupations include:
Mid and top-level management (executive, administrator).
Sales.
Social work.
Other management roles.
Human resources (including personnel and training).
Other administrative tasks.
Insurance, real estate, and business careers.
Marketing and sales positions.
Healthcare roles (e.g., nurse, pharmacist, therapist).
Finance careers (e.g., accountant, auditor).
2009 Employment Statistics of Psychology Doctorates
Distribution in various sectors:
University: 26%
Hospital or health services: 25%
Government/VA medical centers: 16%
Business or nonprofit: 10%
Other educational institutions: 8%
Medical school: 6%
Independent practice: 6%
NEXT CLASS ASSIGNMENT
Read Chapter 2
Topic: Psychological Research