MCN SL

ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Emphasizes the sociocultural determinants of development and presents them as 8 stages of psychosocial conflicts all individual must overcome or resolve successfully in order to adjust well to the environment.

SIGMUND FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Each of the five stages of Freudian psychosexual development theory is associated with a corresponding:

• age range

• erogenous body part

• clinical consequence of fixation

STAGE 1: 0-1 YEAR, ORAL STAGE ( MOUTH )

Stage I: 0-1 year, oral, mouth: Oral desire is the center of pleasure for the newborn baby.

❑ The earliest attachment of a baby is to the one that provides gratification to his oral needs, usually his mother.

❑ If the optimal amount of stimulation is not available, libidinal energy fixates on the oral mode of gratification, resulting in subsequent latent aggressive or passive tendencies.

STAGE II: 1-3 YEARS OLD –ANAL STAGE (BOWEL AND BLADDER

Stage II: 1-3 years old, anal, bowel, and bladder: Toilet training is an especially sensitive task during this period.

❑ The parents' desire for adequate performance shifts the libidinal

energy from the oral to the anal area.

❑ The child faces increased chances to be reprimanded, to feel

inadequate, and an increased ability to perceive a negative evaluation

from a caretaker if he fails to perform appropriately.

❑ Fixation at this stage can manifest in anal retentiveness (incessant

orderliness) or anal expulsiveness (whimsical disorganization).

STAGE III: 3-6 YEARS OLD, PHALLIC STAGE (GENITALIA)

Stage III: 3-6 years old, phallic, genitalia: This is

perhaps the most controversial stage of Freud's

psychosexual development.

❑ This is the stage in which the child begins to experience

pleasure associated with their genitalia.

❑ In this period of primitive sexual development, the child

can establish the roots of fixation with the opposite sex

parent, the Oedipus complex.

STAGE IV: 6-12 YEARS OLD , LATENCY STAGE

Stage IV: 6 - 12 years old, latency, dormant sexual feelings: During this time, the libido is relatively repressed or sublimated.

❑ Freud did not identify any erogenous zone for this stage.

❑ The child now begins to act on their impulses indirectly by focusing on activities such as school, sports, and building relationships.

❑ Dysfunction at this stage results in the child's inability to form healthy relationships as an adult.

STAGE V: 13-18 YEARS OLD, GENITAL STAGE

Stage V: 13-18 years old, genital, mature sexual feelings: The child's ego becomes fully developed during this stage, and they are subsequently seeking their independence.

❑Their ability to create meaningful and lasting relationships is concrete, and their sexual desires and activity are healthy and consensual.

❑If a child or young adult experiences dysfunction during this period, they will be unable to develop meaningful healthy relationships.

3 STRUCTURES OF THE PSYCHE (PERSONALITY)

1. ID – Instinctive Desire – Pleasure Principle

2. EGO – Reality Principle

3. SUPEREGO – Conscience Principle

JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Sensorimotor Stage ( Birth to 2 Years old)

• The infant develops an action pattern for dealing with the environment. This includes hitting, looking, grasping or kicking.

• As the infant learns that sucking achieves a pleasing result, he/she generalizes the action to suck fingers, blanket or clothing. Successful achievement leads to greater exploration.

Preoperational Stage( 2-7 Years old )

• Children learn to think with the use of symbols and mental images.

• Still egocentric, the child sees objects and persons from only one point of view, the child’s own.

• Time for Parallel play –children engaging in activities side-by-side without a common goal.

Concrete Operational Stage ( 7-11 years old)

• Children at this time, achieve the ability to perform mental operations

Formal Operational Stage ( 11 years to adulthood)

• The individual’s thinking moves to abstract and theoretical subjects.

• Thinking can venture into such subjects as achieving world peace, finding justice, and seeking meaning in life.

KOHLBERG'S MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

• states that we progress through three levels of moral thinking that build on our cognitive development.

Key Points

• Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of children, which he believed follows a series of stages.

• Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development:

1. Preconventional

2. Conventional

3. Postconventional

Each level has two distinct stages.

LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Level 1: PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL

• a child's sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers, and they judge an action based on its consequences.

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation

• focuses on the child's desire to obey rules and avoid being punished.

• Ex: an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for the act is, the more "bad" the act is perceived to be.

• A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society's conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

• expresses the "what's in it for me?" position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest.

• reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might further the individual's own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a "you scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours" mentality

• Ex: when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks "what's in it for me?" and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.

Level 2: CONVENTIONAL LEVEL

• an individual's sense of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships.

• Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now because they believe that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.

Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

• children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.

• Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being "nice" to others.

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

• child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society.

• Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is "supposed" to do is seen as valuable and important.

• Moral reasoning is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three.

• If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules.

• Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: POSTCONVENTIONAL LEVEL

• person's sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles and values.

• People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles.

• Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question.

• Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level.

• Some theorists have speculated that many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.

Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

• the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts.

• Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

• This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five reasoning.

Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

• moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect.

• Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws.

• People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty.

• In this way, the individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon.

• Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.