Chapter 8 - Learning and Memory

1. Introduction

• Focus on understanding the concepts of learning and memory, their definitions, and importance.

• Objectives for students include:

  • Define learning and memory.

  • Distinguish different theories of learning.

  • Explain the importance of learning.

  • Understand the basic system of human memory.

  • Discuss how information is stored and organized.

  • Understand memory changes over time and techniques to improve memory.

2. What is Learning?

• Definition: Learning is relatively permanent changes in behavior due to experience, excluding temporary changes from factors like disease or injury.

• Types of Learning:

  • Associative Learning: Formation of associations among stimuli or responses.

    • Types: Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning.

  • Cognitive Learning: Involves understanding and making use of information-rich processes.

3. Associative Learning

• Reinforcement: Increases probability of response recurrence.

• Antecedents: Events preceding a response, crucial in classical conditioning.

• Consequences: Follow a response; more important in operant conditioning.

4. Theories of Learning

4.1 Classical Conditioning

• Definition: Linking a neutral stimulus with a response-producing stimulus.

  • Example: A horn ringing (neutral stimulus) associated with a puff of air (unconditioned stimulus).

• Steps:

  • Before Conditioning: NS does not produce a response.

  • During Conditioning: Pairing NS with US leads to conditioned response.

  • After Conditioning: NS becomes conditioned stimulus that elicits response.

4.2 Operant Conditioning

• Definition: Learning based on consequences of behavior.

  • Law of Effect: Responses followed by pleasant outcomes are likely to be repeated.

• Reinforcement vs. Punishment:

  • Reinforcer: Increases behavior.

  • Punisher: Decreases behavior.

• Examples of operant conditioning in different fields (education, sports, work).

5. Social Learning

• Learning by Observation: Learning occurs through observing a model.

  • Conditions for Learning:

    • Attention: The learner must focus on the model's behavior.

    • Retention: The learner retains observed behavior for later use.

    • Motor Reproduction: The learner can perform the observed behavior.

    • Motivation: Reinforcement expectations influence behavior execution.

6. What is Memory?

• Definition: Memory is the mind's ability to encode, store, and retrieve information.

• Memory Types:

  • Sensory Memory: Brief retention of sensory information.

  • Short-Term Memory: Holds limited information temporarily.

  • Long-Term Memory: Permanent storage of vast information.

7. Information-Processing Model

• Describes the process of memory as involving attention, encoding, storage, and retrieval stages.

8. Types of Memory

• Sensory Memory: Lasts for a few seconds; includes iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory.

• Short-Term Memory: Retains around seven items for about twenty seconds; can be improved through chunking.

• Long-Term Memory:

  • Implicit Memory: Cannot be consciously recalled; includes skills.

  • Explicit Memory: Can be consciously accessed; includes facts (semantic) and autobiographical events (episodic).

9. Memory Storage

• Semantic Networks: Connections between related memories leading to easier retrieval.

• Hippocampal Region: Key for encoding new information into long-term memory.

10. Forgetting

• Forgetting Theories: Include encoding failure, interference, and decay.

• Types of Interference:

  • Proactive: Old memories interfere with new ones.

  • Retroactive: New memories interfere with old ones.

11. Improving Memory

• Strategies to enhance memory include mnemonics, practice, and visualization techniques.

12. Autobiographical Memory

• Memorable Transitions: Strong recollections during significant life changes.

• Flashbulb Memories: Strong memories for emotional, significant events.

• Forgetting Theories and Distortion: Misleading information can alter memories, leading to forgetting or distortion.