Chapter 6

LO 1 Define learning.

Associative Learning

• Psychology Definition: Associative learning is the process by which an association between two stimuli or a behavior and a stimulus is learned.
• Summary: It's when you learn that two things are connected, like hearing a bell and knowing it's time for lunch.

Habituation

• Psychology Definition: Habituation is the process of becoming accustomed to a stimulus and gradually paying less attention to it. → Organism does not respond as strongly or as often to an event following multiple exposures to it
• Summary: It's when you get used to something and stop noticing it, like a ticking clock in your room.

Stimulus

• Psychology Definition: An event or occurance that generally leads to a response
• Summary: It's something that causes a reaction, like a loud noise making you jump.

Classical Conditioning

• Psychology Definition: Classical conditioning is a learning process that creates a new association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.
• Summary: It's when you learn to respond to something because it gets linked with something else, like dogs salivating when they hear a bell because they expect food.

Association Between Two Stimuli

• Psychology Definition: This refers to the process of linking two stimuli together so that the presence of one elicits the response that was originally elicited by the other.
• Summary: It's when your brain connects two things, like lightning and thunder, so you know when you see lightning, thunder will follow.

Operant Conditioning

• Psychology Definition: Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences, such as rewards and punishments.
• Summary: It's when you learn to do things more or less often because of what happens after, like getting a treat for doing homework.

Behavior and Consequences

• Psychology Definition: This concept in operant conditioning involves learning that behaviors have consequences, which can be positive (reinforcement) or negative (punishment).
• Summary: It's understanding that what you do can lead to good or bad outcomes, like getting praise for helping or a timeout for misbehaving.

Observational Learning

• Psychology Definition: Observational learning is learning by watching others and imitating their behavior.
• Summary: It's when you learn by seeing what others do and copying them, like learning to tie your shoes by watching someone else.

LO 2 Explain what Pavlov’s studies teach us about classical conditioning.

Ivan Pavlov, response, classical conditioning

Ivan Pavlov

• Psychology Definition: Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist known for his work in classical conditioning.
• Summary: He was a scientist who discovered how dogs learn to expect food when they hear a bell.

Response

• Psychology Definition: A response is a reaction to a stimulus.
• Summary: It's what you do when something happens, like salivating when you smell food.

LO 3 Identify the differences between the US, UR, CS, and CR.

neutral stimulus (NS), unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), conditioned stimulus (CS), conditioned response (CR), acquisition, timing

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

• Psychology Definition: A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that initially does not elicit any intrinsic response.
• Summary: It's something that doesn't make you react at first, like a bell before training.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

• Psychology Definition: A stimulus that automatically triggers an involuntary response without any learning needed
• Summary: It's something that naturally makes you react, like food making you salivate.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

• Psychology Definition: A reflexive, involuntary response to an unconditioned stimulus
• Summary: It's a natural reaction to something, like salivating when you see food.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

• Psychology Definition: A previously neutral stimulus that an organism learns to associate with an unconditioned stimulus
• Summary: It's something you learn to react to, like a bell that now makes you expect food.

Conditioned Response (CR)

• Psychology Definition: A learned response to a conditioned stimulus
• Summary: It's the reaction you learn, like salivating when you hear a bell because you expect food.

Acquisition

• Psychology Definition: Initial learning phase in both classical and operant conditioning
• Summary: It's the period when you start learning something new, like when the bell starts making you salivate.

Timing

• Psychology Definition: Timing refers to the interval between the presentation of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus during conditioning.
• Summary: It's how close in time two things happen, like how soon after the bell the food comes.

LO 4 Recognize and give examples of stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination.

Stimulus Generalization

• Psychology Definition: The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response
• Summary: It's when you react the same way to similar things, like salivating to different bells that sound alike.

Stimulus Discrimination

• Psychology Definition: The ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli sufficiently different from it
• Summary: It's when you only react to the exact thing you learned about, like only salivating to one specific bell.

Extinction

• Psychology Definition: Extinction is the diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus.
• Summary: It's when you stop reacting to something because it no longer happens, like not salivating when the bell rings if no food follows.

Spontaneous Recovery

• Psychology Definition: The reappearance of a conditioned response following its extinction
• Summary: It's when an old reaction comes back after a break, like suddenly salivating to the bell again after some time.

Higher Order Conditioning

• Psychology Definition: With repeated pairings of a conditioned stimulus and a second neutral stimulus, that second neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus as well
• Summary: It's when you learn to react to a new thing linked to the first thing, like salivating to a light because it’s paired with the bell.

LO 5 Summarize how classical conditioning is dependent on the biology of the organism.

Conditioned Taste Aversion

• Psychology Definition: A form of classical conditioning that occurs when an organism learns to associate the taste of a particular food or drink with illness
• Summary: It's when you avoid food because it makes you sick once, like never wanting to eat a certain fruit again.

Adaptive Value

• Psychology Definition: Adaptive value refers to the degree to which a trait or behavior helps an organism survive and reproduce.
• Summary: It's how useful something is for survival, like avoiding bad food to stay healthy.

Biological Preparedness

• Psychology Definition: The tendency for animals to be predisposed or inclined to form certain kinds of associations through classical conditioning
• Summary: It's being naturally ready to learn certain things, like quickly learning to avoid dangerous foods.

Garcia and Colleagues’ Rat Studies

• Psychology Definition: Garcia's studies showed that rats could quickly learn to avoid a taste that was associated with illness, demonstrating conditioned taste aversion.
• Summary: Scientists found that rats easily learned to stay away from food that made them sick.
• Quolls and Toads
  Psychology Definition: This study demonstrated that conditioned taste aversion could be used to protect native species like quolls from poisonous invasive species like toads.
  Summary: They taught animals to avoid eating harmful toads by making them taste bad.

Coyotes

• Psychology Definition: Studies showed that coyotes could be conditioned to avoid eating livestock by associating the taste of sheep meat with illness.
• Summary: Coyotes learned not to attack sheep after getting sick from eating treated sheep meat.

Chemotherapy

• Psychology Definition: Patients undergoing chemotherapy can develop conditioned taste aversions to foods eaten before treatment due to the association with subsequent nausea.
• Summary: People might avoid certain foods because they got sick after eating them before their treatment.

LO 6 Describe the Little Albert study and explain how fear can be learned.

John Watson

• Psychology Definition: John Watson was an American psychologist who conducted the Little Albert study to demonstrate classical conditioning in humans.
• Summary: He was a scientist who showed how people can learn to fear things.

Little Albert Study

• Psychology Definition: The Little Albert study involved conditioning a young child to fear a white rat by pairing the rat with a loud, frightening noise.
• Summary: They made a baby afraid of a rat by making a scary noise every time he saw it.

Ethically Concerns

• Psychology Definition: Ethical concerns refer to the moral issues and potential harm to participants in psychological studies.
  
• Summary: People worried about the safety and fairness of the experiment with the baby.

Classical Conditioning and Advertising

• Psychology Definition: Classical conditioning is used in advertising to create positive associations between products and certain stimuli, such as attractive people or pleasant music.
  
• Summary: Ads use this to make you like products by linking them with happy things.

LO 7 Describe Thorndike’s law of effect.

Edward Thorndike

• Psychology Definition: Edward Thorndike was a psychologist known for his work on the law of effect and operant conditioning.
• Summary: He was a scientist who studied how rewards and punishments shape behavior.

Puzzle Box

• Psychology Definition: A puzzle box was a device used by Thorndike to study learning in animals, where they had to figure out how to escape to get a reward.
  Summary: It was a box that animals had to solve to get a treat.

Law of Effect

• Psychology Definition: The law of effect states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to occur, while behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to occur.
• Summary: It means we keep doing things that lead to rewards and stop doing things that lead to punishments.

LO 8 Explain how positive and negative reinforcement differ.

positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, examples

Positive Reinforcement

• Psychology Definition: The process by which reinforcers are added or presented following a target behavior, increasing the likelihood of it occurring again
• Summary: It's like getting a treat for doing something good, so you want to do it again.

Negative Reinforcement

• Psychology Definition: Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus following a target behavior to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
• Summary: It's like taking away something bad when you do something good, so you keep doing it.

Examples

• Psychology Definition: Examples of positive reinforcement include giving praise for good grades, while examples of negative reinforcement include removing chores when homework is done.
• Summary: Getting candy for cleaning your room is positive reinforcement, and not having to do dishes if you finish your homework is negative reinforcement.

LO 9 Distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcers.

Primary Reinforcers

• Psychology Definition: Primary reinforcers are naturally reinforcing stimuli because they satisfy basic biological needs, such as food, water, and warmth.
• Summary: These are things you naturally like, like food when you're hungry.

Secondary Reinforcers

• Psychology Definition: Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers, such as money, praise, and grades.
• Summary: These are things you learn to like because they help you get primary reinforcers, like money to buy food.

Examples

• Psychology Definition: Examples of primary reinforcers include food and water, while examples of secondary reinforcers include money and praise.
• Summary: Food is a primary reinforcer, while money is a secondary reinforcer because you can use it to buy food.

LO 10 Explain shaping and the method of successive approximations.

B. F. Skinner, behaviorism, Skinner box [operant chamber], reinforcement, shaping, successive approximations, chaining, shaping demonstration, instinctive drift

B. F. Skinner

• Psychology Definition: B.F. Skinner was a psychologist who developed the theory of operant conditioning and conducted research on behaviorism.
• Summary: He was a scientist who studied how rewards and punishments influence behavior.

Behaviorism

• Psychology Definition: Behaviorism is the theory that psychology should only study observable behaviors, not mental processes.
• Summary: It's the idea that we should focus on what people do, not what they think.

Skinner Box (Operant Chamber)

• Psychology Definition: A Skinner box is a controlled environment used to study operant conditioning with animals.
• Summary: It's a special box where animals learn to press levers to get treats.

Reinforcement

• Psychology Definition: Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior.
• Summary: It's something that makes you want to do something more, like getting a reward.

Shaping

• Psychology Definition: Process of increasing the frequency of behaviors with consequences
• Summary: It's teaching someone to do something by rewarding them for getting closer and closer to the goal.

Successive Approximations

• Psychology Definition: Successive approximations are the small steps taken toward the final desired behavior in the shaping process.
• Summary: These are small steps that gradually lead to the full behavior you're trying to teach.

Chaining

• Psychology Definition: Chaining is a technique in operant conditioning where individual behaviors are linked together to form a complex activity.
• Summary: It's putting together different actions in a sequence, like learning each step to do a dance.

Shaping Demonstration

• Psychology Definition: A shaping demonstration involves showing how complex behavior can be broken down into smaller steps and reinforced incrementally.
• Summary: It shows how you can teach a complicated task by rewarding small steps along the way.

Instinctive Drift

• Psychology Definition: Instinctive drift is the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors after a behavior pattern has been learned
• Summary: It's when animals go back to their natural behaviors, even after being trained.

LO 11 Describe continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement.

, timing of reinforcers: immediate versus delayed, continuous reinforcement, partial reinforcement, both acquisition and extinction faster with continuous reinforcement

Timing of Reinforcers: Immediate vs. Delayed

• Psychology Definition: Immediate reinforcement occurs right after the desired behavior, while delayed reinforcement happens some time after the behavior.
• Summary: Immediate reinforcement is like getting a treat right away, while delayed is like getting it later.

Continuous Reinforcement

• Psychology Definition: Continuous reinforcement involves reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
• Summary: It's when you get a reward every single time you do something right.

Partial Reinforcement

• Psychology Definition: Partial reinforcement involves reinforcing the desired response only some of the time.
• Summary: It's when you get rewards only sometimes, not every time.

Both Acquisition and Extinction Faster with Continuous Reinforcement

• Psychology Definition: Behaviors are learned and forgotten more quickly with continuous reinforcement compared to partial reinforcement.
• Summary: You learn and forget things faster when you always get a reward.

LO 12 Name the schedules of reinforcement and give examples of each.

Fixed Ratio

• Psychology Definition: A fixed ratio schedule reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
• Summary: You get a reward after doing something a set number of times, like a prize for every 10 books read.

Variable Ratio

• Psychology Definition: A variable ratio schedule reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
• Summary: You get rewards randomly, like winning a game sometimes but not every time.

Fixed Interval

• Psychology Definition: A fixed interval schedule reinforces a response only after a specified amount of time has elapsed.
• Summary: You get a reward after a set amount of time, like getting paid every week.

Variable Interval

• Psychology Definition: A variable interval schedule reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
• Summary: You get rewards at random times, like surprise quizzes in school.

LO 13 Explain how punishment differs from negative reinforcement.

Punishment

• Psychology Definition: Punishment is a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
• Summary: It's something bad that makes you stop doing something, like a timeout.

Positive Punishment

• Psychology Definition: Positive punishment involves adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior.
• Summary: It's adding something unpleasant to stop a behavior, like giving extra chores.

Negative Punishment

• Psychology Definition: Negative punishment involves taking away a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior.
• Summary: It's taking away something you like to stop a behavior, like no TV for a week.

Problems with Punishment (Spanking)

• Psychology Definition: Punishment, like spanking, can increase aggression, only suppress behavior, cause negative emotions and mental health issues, and negatively affect cognitive development.
• Summary: Punishment can make people more aggressive, scared, and can harm their thinking skills.

Differences Between Negative Reinforcement and Punishment

• Psychology Definition: Negative reinforcement increases behavior by removing an aversive stimulus, while punishment decreases behavior by adding or removing a stimulus.
• Summary: Negative reinforcement is like stopping a bad thing to encourage good behavior, while punishment is adding or taking away something to stop bad behavior.

LO 14 Summarize what Bandura’s classic Bobo doll study teaches us about learning.

Observational Learning

• Psychology Definition: Observational learning is learning by watching others and imitating their behavior.
• Summary: It's learning by seeing what others do and copying them.

Models

• Psychology Definition: Models are individuals who demonstrate behaviors that others observe and imitate.
• Summary: They are people we watch and learn from, like parents or teachers.

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study

• Psychology Definition: In Bandura’s Bobo doll study, children who observed an adult behaving aggressively toward a Bobo doll were more likely to imitate that behavior.
• Summary: Kids copied what they saw adults do to a toy, showing they learn by watching.

Violence in the Media

• Psychology Definition: Observing violence in the media can lead to increased aggressive behavior in viewers.
• Summary: Watching violent shows can make people act more aggressively.

Prosocial Behavior and Modeling

• Psychology Definition: Observing positive, helpful behaviors can lead to increased prosocial behavior in observers.
• Summary: Seeing good actions can make people act more kindly and helpfully.

LO 15 Describe latent learning and explain how cognition is involved in learning.

Latent Learning

• Psychology Definition: Latent learning is learning that occurs but is not immediately demonstrated until there is an incentive to do so.\
• Summary: It's learning something without showing it right away, like knowing a route but only using it when needed.

Cognitive Maps

• Psychology Definition: Cognitive maps are mental representations of physical locations, helping us navigate our environment.
• Summary: It's like having a mental map of where places are, like knowing your way to school in your head.

Insight

• Psychology Definition: Insight is a sudden realization of a problem's solution without trial-and-error learning.
• Summary: It's figuring out a solution all at once, like suddenly knowing how to fix a puzzle.

Potential Short Answer Questions on the Exam

1. Define each of the following classical conditioning terms (a) unconditioned stimulus, (b) unconditioned response, (c) conditioned stimulus, and (d) conditioned response. Then identify what the (a) unconditioned stimulus, (b) unconditioned response, (c) conditioned stimulus, and (d) conditioned response are in the following example. A nurse injects a needle into a baby’s leg to give the baby an immunization. The baby then starts to cry in pain. When the mother brings the baby back to the doctor’s office, the baby looks scared when she sees the nurse holding another needle. Each definition is worth a ½ point. Each correct identification of what the (a) unconditioned stimulus, (b) unconditioned response, (c) conditioned stimulus, and (d) conditioned response are in the example is worth a ¼ point. (Three points in total).
2. Define and provide examples of the following operant conditioning terms (a) positive reinforcement, (b), negative reinforcement, (c) positive punishment, and (d) negative punishment. Each definition is worth a ½ point and each correct example is worth a ¼ point. (Three points in total).
3. Define and provide examples of the following operant conditioning terms (a) fixed ratio, (b), variable ratio, (c) fixed interval, and (d) variable interval. Each definition is worth a ½ point and each correct example is worth a ¼ point. (Three points in total).

Chapter 7

LO 1 Define memory and describe the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Memory

• Psychology Definition: Memory is the process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.
• Summary: Memory is how we remember things by taking in information, keeping it, and recalling it when needed.

Encoding

• Psychology Definition: Encoding is the process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.
• Summary: Encoding is like taking notes in your brain so you can remember things later.

Storage

• Psychology Definition: Storage refers to maintaining encoded information over time.
• Summary: Storage is like keeping your notes safe in a folder in your brain.

Retrieval

• Psychology Definition: Retrieval is the process of accessing and bringing into consciousness information stored in memory.
• Summary: Retrieval is like finding and using your notes when you need them.

Levels of Processing: Shallow (Structural), Deeper (Phonemic, Semantic or Tying to Other Memories)

• Psychology Definition: Levels of processing refer to the depth at which information is thought about when trying to remember it, with deeper processing leading to better memory.
• Summary: The more you think about something, the better you remember it.

LO 2 Explain the stages of memory described by the information-processing model.

Sensory Memory

• Psychology Definition: Sensory memory is the brief storage of sensory information, lasting only a few seconds.
• Summary: Sensory memory is like a quick snapshot of everything you see and hear.

Short-Term Memory

• Psychology Definition: Short-term memory holds a small amount of information for a short period.
• Summary: Short-term memory is like a small clipboard where you keep information for a short time.

Long-Term Memory

• Psychology Definition: Long-term memory is the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
• Summary: Long-term memory is like a big library that keeps information for a long time.

LO 3 Describe sensory memory.

Sensory Memory

• Psychology Definition: Sensory memory is the initial, momentary storage of information that lasts only an instant.
• Summary: Sensory memory is like a brief flash of what you see and hear.

Iconic Memory (Lasts ¼ to ½ Second)

• Psychology Definition: Iconic memory is a type of sensory memory that holds visual information for a fraction of a second.
• Summary: Iconic memory is like a quick picture in your mind that lasts a moment.

Partial Report

• Psychology Definition: Partial report is a technique used in studies of iconic memory where participants are asked to recall a portion of the visual field.
• Summary: Partial report is like being able to remember only part of what you saw.

Eidetic Memory

• Psychology Definition: Eidetic memory, often referred to as photographic memory, is the ability to recall images with vivid detail.
• Summary: Eidetic memory is like having a perfect picture of something in your head.

Echoic Memory (Lasts 1 to 10 Seconds)

• Psychology Definition: Echoic memory is a type of sensory memory that holds auditory information for a few seconds.
• Summary: Echoic memory is like an echo that lasts in your mind for a few moments.

LO 4 Summarize short-term memory.

Short-Term Memory

• Psychology Definition: Short-term memory is a limited capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to about 20 to 30 seconds.
• Summary: Short-term memory is like a small notepad where you can jot down notes for a short time.

Lasts 20 to 30 Seconds

• Psychology Definition: Information in short-term memory typically lasts 20 to 30 seconds unless rehearsed.
• Summary: Information in short-term memory stays there for just half a minute.

Holds Around 7 Items, 5 to 9

• Psychology Definition: Short-term memory can hold approximately 7 items, plus or minus 2.
• Summary: You can remember around 7 things at once in short-term memory.

Maintenance Rehearsal

• Psychology Definition: Maintenance rehearsal is the process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about a piece of information.
• Summary: Maintenance rehearsal is like repeating something to keep it in your mind longer.

LO 5 Give examples of how people can use chunking to improve their memory span.

Chunking

• Psychology Definition: Chunking is the process of grouping individual pieces of information into larger, more manageable units.
• Summary: Chunking is like grouping things together to remember them better.

Phone Numbers

• Psychology Definition: Phone numbers are often chunked into smaller groups to make them easier to remember.
• Summary: We remember phone numbers by breaking them into chunks, like 123-456-7890.

Social Security Numbers, Etc.

• Psychology Definition: Social security numbers are chunked similarly to phone numbers to facilitate recall.
• Summary: Social security numbers are remembered in chunks, like 123-45-6789.

LO 6 Describe working memory and its relationship to short-term memory.

Working Memory

• Psychology Definition: Working memory is a system for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed to perform cognitive tasks.
• Summary: Working memory is like a workspace where you handle and use information right now.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

• Psychology Definition: The visuospatial sketchpad is a component of working memory responsible for handling visual and spatial information.
• Summary: The visuospatial sketchpad is like a mental sketchpad for images and spaces.

Episodic Buffer

• Psychology Definition: The episodic buffer integrates information from various sources and maintains a sense of time.
• Summary: The episodic buffer connects different pieces of information into a story.

Phonological Loop

• Psychology Definition: The phonological loop is a part of working memory that deals with verbal and auditory information.
• Summary: The phonological loop is like a voice recorder in your mind.

Central Executive

• Psychology Definition: The central executive controls attention and coordinates the activities of the other components of working memory.
• Summary: The central executive is like a boss that manages tasks and resources in your mind.

Multitasking and Memory

• Psychology Definition: Multitasking involves dividing attention among multiple tasks, which can affect memory performance.
• Summary: Multitasking can make it harder to remember things because you're splitting your attention.

LO 7 Describe long-term memory.

Explicit Memory

• Psychology Definition: Explicit memory is the conscious recollection of information, such as facts and events.
• Summary: Explicit memory is remembering things you know and can talk about, like facts and events.

Semantic Memory

• Psychology Definition: Semantic memory is a type of explicit memory that includes general knowledge and facts.
• Summary: Semantic memory is like your mental encyclopedia.

Episodic Memory

• Psychology Definition: Episodic memory is a type of explicit memory that involves personal experiences and events.
• Summary: Episodic memory is like a scrapbook of your life events.

Flashbulb Memories

• Psychology Definition: Flashbulb memories are vivid and detailed memories of significant events.
• Summary: Flashbulb memories are like bright snapshots of important moments.

Implicit Memory

• Psychology Definition: Implicit memory is the unconscious retention of information, such as skills and conditioned responses.
• Summary: Implicit memory is like knowing how to ride a bike without thinking about it.

Procedural Memories

• Psychology Definition: Procedural memories are a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and actions.
• Summary: Procedural memories are like knowing how to do things, like tying your shoes.

Conditioned Memories

• Psychology Definition: Conditioned memories are learned responses to specific stimuli.
• Summary: Conditioned memories are like reacting automatically to certain things, like flinching at a loud noise.

Recall

• Psychology Definition: Recall is the process of retrieving information from memory without cues.
• Summary: Recall is like remembering something from scratch, like answering a test question.

Recognition

• Psychology Definition: Recognition is the process of identifying information previously learned when presented with it.
• Summary: Recognition is like picking out the right answer from a list.

Retrieval Cues

• Psychology Definition: Retrieval cues are stimuli that help access memories stored in long-term memory.
• Summary: Retrieval cues are like hints that help you remember things.

Serial Position Curve

• Psychology Definition: The serial position curve shows that people are more likely to remember items at the beginning and end of a list.
• Summary: The serial position curve means you remember the first and last things best.

Primacy Effect

• Psychology Definition: The primacy effect is the tendency to remember the first items in a list.
• Summary: The primacy effect is like remembering the first names you hear.

Recency Effect

• Psychology Definition: The recency effect is the tendency to remember the last items in a list.
• Summary: The recency effect is like remembering the last names you hear.

Network Models of Memory

• Psychology Definition: Network models of memory propose that memories are stored in interconnected networks.
• Summary: Network models of memory are like webs where memories are linked together.

Spreading Activation

• Psychology Definition: Spreading activation is the process by which activation of one memory triggers related memories.
• Summary: Spreading activation is like one idea sparking another in your mind.

Priming

• Psychology Definition: Priming is the activation of certain associations, often unconsciously, that influence perception and response.
• Summary: Priming is like being influenced by something without knowing it.

Spreading Activation in Class Example

• Psychology Definition: Spreading activation in a class example illustrates how thinking of one concept can lead to related ideas.
• Summary: Thinking about dogs can make you think of pets, fur, and barking.

Effortful Processing

• Psychology Definition: Effortful processing requires attention and conscious effort to encode information.
• Summary: Effortful processing is like studying hard for a test.

Automatic Processing

• Psychology Definition: Automatic processing involves unconscious encoding of incidental information.
• Summary: Automatic processing is like remembering things without trying, like what you had for breakfast.

LO 8 Describe strategies for improving one’s memory.

• Mnemonics
  • Psychology Definition: Mnemonics are memory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
  • Summary: Mnemonics are like tricks to help you remember things.
• Acronyms
  • Psychology Definition: Acronyms are abbreviations formed from the initial letters of other words.
  • Summary: Acronyms are like shortcuts to remember long phrases, like "NASA."
• First Letter Technique
  • Psychology Definition: The first letter technique uses the first letters of a list of items to create a word or phrase.
  • Summary: The first letter technique is like making a word from the first letters of what you need to remember.
• Imagery
  • Psychology Definition: Imagery involves creating vivid mental pictures to aid memory.
  • Summary: Imagery is like picturing things in your mind to remember them better.
• Method of Loci
  • Psychology Definition: The method of loci involves associating items with specific locations to aid memory.
  • Summary: The method of loci is like placing things you need to remember in different spots in your house.
• Peg Word
  • Psychology Definition: The peg word method involves associating items with a pre-memorized list of words.
  • Summary: The peg word method is like using rhyming words to remember a list, like "one is a bun."
• Hierarchical Structures
  • Psychology Definition: Hierarchical structures involve organizing information into categories and subcategories.
  • Summary: Hierarchical structures are like making an outline to organize information.
• Elaborative Rehearsal
  • Psychology Definition: Elaborative rehearsal involves linking new information to existing knowledge.
  • Summary: Elaborative rehearsal is like connecting new ideas to things you already know.
• Distributed Practice is Better than Massed Practice
  • Psychology Definition: Distributed practice, or spacing out study sessions, leads to better retention than massed practice, or cramming.
  • Summary: Studying a little bit over time helps you remember more than cramming.
• Testing Effect
  • Psychology Definition: The testing effect shows that taking tests improves learning and memory retention.
  • Summary: Taking quizzes helps you remember information better.
• Get Enough Sleep
  • Psychology Definition: Adequate sleep is essential for memory consolidation and overall cognitive function.
  • Summary: Sleeping well helps your brain remember things.

LO 9 Illustrate how encoding specificity relates to retrieval cues.

• Encoding Specificity Principle
  • Psychology Definition: The encoding specificity principle states that memory is most effective when information available at encoding is also present at retrieval.
  • Summary: You remember things better if you try to recall them in the same situation where you learned them.
• Retrieval Cues
  • Psychology Definition: Retrieval cues are stimuli that help you recall information stored in memory.
  • Summary: Retrieval cues are like hints that help you remember things.
• Context Dependent Memory
  • Psychology Definition: Context dependent memory is the improved recall of information when the context present at encoding is also present at retrieval.
  • Summary: You remember things better in the same place where you learned them.
• State-Dependent Memory
  • Psychology Definition: State-dependent memory is the improved recall of information when in the same state of consciousness as when it was learned.
  • Summary: You remember things better when you feel the same way as when you learned them.
• Mood Congruent Memory
  • Psychology Definition: Mood congruent memory is the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood.
  • Summary: You remember happy things when you're happy and sad things when you're sad.

LO 10 Identify and explain some of the reasons why people forget information.

Relearning

• Psychology Definition: Relearning is the process of learning information that you have previously learned and forgotten.
• Summary: Relearning is like studying something again to remember it better.

Forgetting Curve

• Psychology Definition: The forgetting curve shows how information is lost over time when there is no attempt to retain it.
• Summary: The forgetting curve is like a graph that shows you forget things quickly at first, then slowly over time.

Encoding Failure

• Psychology Definition: Encoding failure occurs when information is not stored in long-term memory.
• Summary: Encoding failure is like not taking notes on something, so you don't remember it later.

Storage Failure

• Psychology Definition: Storage failure happens when memories decay over time.
• Summary: Storage failure is like losing your notes over time.

Memory Decay

• Psychology Definition: Memory decay is the fading of memories over time if they are not used or rehearsed.
• Summary: Memory decay is like forgetting things because you don't think about them.

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon

• Psychology Definition: The tip of the tongue phenomenon occurs when a person cannot recall a word or name but feels that retrieval is imminent.
• Summary: The tip of the tongue phenomenon is like knowing you know something but can't quite say it.

Lost the Cues for Retrieval

• Psychology Definition: Retrieval failure can occur when the cues necessary to trigger a memory are missing.
• Summary: Lost retrieval cues are like losing the hints you need to remember something.

Infantile Amnesia

• Psychology Definition: Infantile amnesia is the inability to recall memories from early childhood.
• Summary: Infantile amnesia is like not remembering things from when you were a baby.

Retrieval Failure

• Psychology Definition: Retrieval failure is the inability to access information stored in memory.
• Summary: Retrieval failure is like not being able to find your notes when you need them.

Interference

• Psychology Definition: Interference occurs when information competes with the information you are trying to recall.
• Summary: Interference is like having too many notes and getting confused.

Retroactive Interference

• Psychology Definition: Retroactive interference happens when new information interferes with the recall of old information.
• Summary: Retroactive interference is like new notes making it hard to remember old ones.

Proactive Interference

• Psychology Definition: Proactive interference occurs when old information interferes with the recall of new information.
• Summary: Proactive interference is like old notes making it hard to remember new ones.

LO 11 Explain how the malleability of memory influences the recall of events.

Malleability of Memory

• Psychology Definition: The malleability of memory refers to the tendency of memory to be influenced and altered by various factors.
• Summary: Memory can change and be influenced by what you hear and see later.

Misinformation Effect

• Psychology Definition: The misinformation effect occurs when a person's recall of an event is altered by misleading information presented after the event.
• Summary: The misinformation effect is like remembering wrong details because of what someone told you later.

LO 12 Define and explain the significance of rich false memory.

Rich False Memories

• Psychology Definition: Rich false memories are vivid, detailed memories of events that never actually occurred.
• Summary: Rich false memories are like having clear memories of things that never happened.

Repressed Memories

• Psychology Definition: Repressed memories are memories that have been unconsciously blocked due to their association with a high level of stress or trauma.
• Summary: Repressed memories are like hiding away painful memories without realizing it.

Debate over Whether Repressed Memories Are Real

• Psychology Definition: There is an ongoing debate about the authenticity and accuracy of repressed memories.
• Summary: People argue about whether repressed memories are real or not.

LO 13 Compare and contrast anterograde and retrograde amnesia.

Retrograde Amnesia

• Psychology Definition: Retrograde amnesia is the loss of memory for events that occurred before the onset of amnesia.
• Summary: Retrograde amnesia is like forgetting things that happened before an accident.

Anterograde Amnesia

• Psychology Definition: Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia.
• Summary: Anterograde amnesia is like not being able to remember new things after an accident.

Clive Wearing

• Psychology Definition: Clive Wearing is a musician who suffers from both retrograde and anterograde amnesia, leaving him unable to remember his past or form new memories.
• Summary: Clive Wearing is a man who can't remember his past or make new memories.

H.M.

• Psychology Definition: H.M. was a patient who developed severe anterograde amnesia following surgery to treat epilepsy, providing key insights into the role of the hippocampus in memory.
• Summary: H.M. couldn't form new memories after brain surgery.

Connectionism

• Psychology Definition: Connectionism is a theoretical framework for understanding cognition in terms of networks that link together nodes of information.
• Summary: Connectionism is like understanding the brain as a network of connected ideas.

Memory Trace

• Psychology Definition: A memory trace is the physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed.
• Summary: A memory trace is like a footprint left in the brain by a memory.

LO 14 Identify the brain structures involved in memory.

Hippocampus: Role in Consolidating Explicit Memories

• Psychology Definition: The hippocampus is involved in the consolidation of explicit (declarative) memories.
• Summary: The hippocampus helps store facts and events.

Cerebellum: Role in Implicit Memories

• Psychology Definition: The cerebellum plays a role in the formation and storage of implicit (procedural) memories.
• Summary: The cerebellum helps with skills like riding a bike.

Basal Ganglia: Role in Implicit Memories

• Psychology Definition: The basal ganglia are involved in the formation of procedural memories and habits.
• Summary: The basal ganglia help with habits and routines.

Amygdala: Role in Implicit and Emotional Memories

• Psychology Definition: The amygdala is involved in processing emotional memories and responses.
• Summary: The amygdala helps remember things that make you feel strong emotions.

Cerebral Cortex – Storage Distributed Throughout

• Psychology Definition: The cerebral cortex is involved in the storage of long-term memories, distributed across various regions.
• Summary: The cerebral cortex stores different parts of your memories all over the brain.

LO 15 Describe long-term potentiation and its relationship to memory.

Long-Term Potentiation

• Psychology Definition: Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a long-lasting increase in synaptic strength between neurons, associated with learning and memory.
• Summary: LTP is like making the connections in your brain stronger when you learn something.

Alzheimer’s Disease

• Psychology Definition: Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss, confusion, and cognitive decline.
• Summary: Alzheimer's disease makes people lose their memory and thinking skills over time.

Tangles

• Psychology Definition: Tangles are twisted fibers of a protein called tau that build up inside brain cells in Alzheimer's disease.
• Summary: Tangles are twisted proteins in the brain that cause Alzheimer's.

Plaques

• Psychology Definition: Plaques are clumps of a protein called beta-amyloid that build up between nerve cells in Alzheimer's disease.
• Summary: Plaques are clumps of protein in the brain that cause Alzheimer's.

Genetic Causes

• Psychology Definition: Genetic causes of Alzheimer’s include mutations in specific genes that increase the risk of developing the disease.
• Summary: Some genes can make you more likely to get Alzheimer's.

Environmental Causes

• Psychology Definition: Environmental causes of Alzheimer’s include factors like head injury, lifestyle, and exposure to toxins.
• Summary: Things like head injuries and unhealthy habits can contribute to Alzheimer's.

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy

• Psychology Definition: Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by repeated head injuries, often seen in athletes.
• Summary: CTE is brain damage from repeated hits to the head, common in sports players.

Potential Short Answer Questions on the Exam

1. Define and provide examples of the following terms (a) semantic memory, (b) episodic memories, and (c) procedural memory. Each definition is worth a ½ point and each correct example is worth a ½ point. (Three points in total).
2. Define and provide examples of the following terms (a) context dependent memory, (b) state dependent memory, and (c) mood congruent memory. Each definition is worth a ½ point and each correct example is worth a ½ point. (Three points in total).
3. Provide examples of the following memory issues (a) flashbulb memory, (b) encoding failure, and (c) retrieval failure. Each correct example is worth one point. (Three points in total).
4. Provide examples of the following memory issues (a) the misinformation effect, (b) retroactive interference, and (c) proactive interference. Each correct example is worth one point. (Three points in total).

Chapter 8

LO 1 Examine and distinguish among various theories of intelligence.

Spearman's g-factor/little g [general intelligence]:

• Psychological definition: Spearman's g-factor refers to a general mental ability that influences overall intelligence and performance on various tasks.
• Summary: It's the idea that there's one overall smartness that affects how well you do in school and other things.

Thurstone’s independent factors model:

• Psychological definition: Thurstone proposed that intelligence is made up of several distinct abilities or factors, such as verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, and numerical reasoning, which can operate independently.
• Summary: Thurstone thought being smart is made up of lots of different skills like reading, solving puzzles, and math, and you can be good at some but not others.

Gardner’s multiple intelligences:

• Psychological definition: Gardner's theory suggests that there are different types of intelligence beyond what is measured in traditional IQ tests, including abilities like music, art, and understanding other people's feelings.
• Summary: Gardner says being smart is not just about school; it's also about being good at music, art, understanding people, and other skills.

Savant syndrome:

• Psychological definition: Savant syndrome is a rare condition where someone with a developmental or intellectual disability has exceptional abilities in specific areas like math, music, or art, despite challenges in other areas.
• Summary: Some people who have trouble learning other things can be really amazing at things like math or music.

Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence [analytic intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intelligence]:

• Psychological definition: Sternberg's theory proposes three types of intelligence: analytical (thinking logically and solving problems), creative (coming up with new ideas), and practical (applying knowledge in everyday situations).
• Summary: Sternberg says being smart means being good at solving problems, being creative, and knowing how to use what you know in real life.

Synapses (how densely an area of the brain is):

• Psychological definition: Synapses are tiny gaps between nerve cells in the brain where signals pass through; the density of synapses in a brain area affects how well it can process information.
• Summary: Synapses are like connections in the brain that help us think and learn, and having lots of connections can make it easier to understand things.

Processing speed:

• • Psychological definition: Processing speed refers to how quickly someone can understand and respond to information, which is an important part of how efficiently someone's brain works.
  • Summary: Processing speed is how fast someone's brain can think and react, which helps them learn and solve problems quicker.

LO 2 Describe how intelligence is measured and identify the important characteristics of assessment.

Intelligence tests:

• Psychological definition: Intelligence tests are assessments designed to measure a person's cognitive abilities, such as reasoning, problem-solving, and memory.
• Summary: These tests help understand how smart someone is and what they're good at, like math or puzzles.

Achievement tests:

• Psychological definition: Achievement tests measure what someone has learned or accomplished in specific subjects or areas of study.
• Summary: They check how well you've learned things in school, like reading or math.

Aptitude tests:

• Psychological definition: Aptitude tests assess a person's potential to learn new skills or perform well in certain areas, often predicting future success in those areas.
• Summary: These tests guess how well you could do in different jobs or subjects you might learn.

Alfred Binet's tests:

• Psychological definition: Alfred Binet developed the first intelligence test to identify children who needed extra help in school, focusing on mental abilities appropriate for different ages.
• Summary: Binet made tests to see if kids need help in school and how smart they are for their age.

Based on Spearman’s g-factor and different abilities for different aged kids:

• Psychological definition: Based on Spearman's theory, intelligence is influenced by a general factor (g-factor) that affects overall performance, while specific abilities may vary with age and experience.
• Summary: Some people are good at lots of things (g-factor), and kids might get better at different skills as they grow up.

Mental age:

• Psychological definition: Mental age is a concept used in intelligence testing to compare an individual's cognitive abilities relative to what is typical for their age group.
• Summary: It's like how smart you are compared to other kids your age.

Stanford-Binet:

• Psychological definition: The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales are a widely used set of intelligence tests that measure cognitive abilities in children and adults.
• Summary: This test checks how smart you are, like if you're good at math or puzzles.

IQ [Intelligence Quotient]:

• Psychological definition: IQ is a score derived from intelligence tests that represents a person's cognitive abilities relative to others of the same age group.
• Summary: IQ shows how smart you are compared to other kids your age.

Problems with IQ formula:

• Psychological definition: Critics argue that IQ tests may not accurately measure all aspects of intelligence and can be influenced by cultural biases or testing conditions.
• Summary: Some people think IQ tests aren't always fair because they might favor certain kids or miss how smart someone really is.

Weschler's tests: WAIS and WISC:

• Psychological definition: The WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) and WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) are intelligence tests that measure various cognitive abilities in adults and children, respectively.
• Summary: These tests check how smart adults and kids are in different ways, like with words or puzzles.

Standardization:

• Psychological definition: Standardization involves developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring tests to ensure consistency and fairness in interpretation.
• Summary: Standardization makes sure tests are fair for everyone and gives the same results.

Test norms:

• Psychological definition: Test norms are established standards based on the performance of a reference group, used to interpret an individual's test scores.
• Summary: Test norms compare how well you did to other kids who took the same test.

Normal curve:

• Psychological definition: The normal curve (or bell curve) is a graphical representation of a distribution of scores in which most scores fall near the middle (average), with fewer scores at the extremes (high or low).
• Summary: Most kids score average on tests, but some do better or worse.

Reliability:

• Psychological definition: Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of test scores over time and across different conditions.
• Summary: Reliability means you get similar results on a test if you take it again.

Validity:

• Psychological definition: Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.
• Summary: Validity checks if a test really shows how smart someone is or how well they learn.

Predictive validity:

• Psychological definition: Predictive validity assesses whether a test can accurately predict future outcomes, such as academic success or job performance.
• Summary: Predictive validity guesses how well someone might do in school or work.

Evidence for and against bias:

• Psychological definition: Bias refers to unfair advantages or disadvantages that can affect test performance based on factors like culture, language, or socioeconomic status (SES).
• Summary: Some tests might not be fair to everyone, depending on where they're from or how much money they have.

Environmental factors:

• Psychological definition: Environmental factors include influences such as upbringing, education, socioeconomic status (SES), nutrition, and exposure to toxins, which can affect cognitive development and intelligence.
• Summary: Where you grow up and how you live can make you smart or not.

SES (Socioeconomic Status):

• Psychological definition: SES is a measure of an individual's or family's social and economic position in relation to others, which can influence access to resources and opportunities that impact cognitive development and intelligence.
• Summary: How much money and education your family has can affect how smart you are.

Stress:

• Psychological definition: Stress is a physiological and psychological response to challenging or threatening situations that can affect cognitive abilities and performance on tests.
• Summary: Feeling worried or scared can make it hard to do well on tests.

Importance of the validity of the test:

• Psychological definition: Validity is crucial because it ensures that a test accurately measures what it claims to measure, providing meaningful and reliable information about an individual's abilities or traits.
• Summary: It's important for tests to really show how smart someone is or what they can do.

Culture-fair intelligence tests:

• Psychological definition: Culture-fair tests are designed to minimize cultural biases and assess cognitive abilities in a way that is equitable across different cultural and linguistic backgrounds.
• Summary: These tests try to be fair for everyone, no matter where they're from or what language they speak.

LO 3 Define creativity and its associated characteristics.

Creativity:

• Psychological definition: Creativity refers to the ability to generate novel and valuable ideas, solutions, or products that are original and meaningful.
• Summary: Creativity means coming up with new and good ideas that can help solve problems or make things better.

Characteristics of creativity: originality, fluency, flexibility, knowledge, thinking, personality, intrinsic motivation:

• Psychological definition: These characteristics describe different aspects of creative thinking:
  • Originality: Coming up with ideas that are new and different.
  • Fluency: Generating a lot of ideas quickly.
  • Flexibility: Thinking about ideas in different ways.
  • Knowledge: Using what you know to create new things.
  • Thinking: Using different ways of thinking to solve problems.
  • Personality: Traits like openness to new experiences and curiosity.
  • Intrinsic motivation: Being driven to create because it's enjoyable or interesting.
• Summary: Being creative means thinking of new and different ideas fast, using what you know, and wanting to make things because you like it.

Divergent thinking:

• Psychological definition: Divergent thinking is a thought process used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions, often without focusing on one correct answer.
• Summary: Divergent thinking is thinking of lots of ideas, not just one right answer.

Alternative Uses Test (the text called this the unusual uses test):

• Psychological definition: The Alternative Uses Test (or Unusual Uses Test) is a measure of divergent thinking where individuals generate multiple creative uses for everyday objects.
• Summary: The test asks you to think of lots of ways to use something in a creative way.

What Would Happen If …:

• Psychological definition: This is a creative thinking exercise where individuals imagine potential outcomes or consequences of hypothetical situations or changes.
• Summary: You think about what could happen if something was different, to come up with new ideas.

Convergent thinking:

• Psychological definition: Convergent thinking is a thought process used to find a single correct answer to a problem by focusing on logical and conventional solutions.
• Summary: Convergent thinking is finding the one right answer to a problem using logic.

Remote Associates Test:

• • Psychological definition: The Remote Associates Test is a measure of creativity that involves finding a common link among three seemingly unrelated words, requiring insight and associative thinking.
  • Summary: This test asks you to find a word that connects three other words that seem different, which shows how well you can think in new and smart ways.

LO 4 Demonstrate an understanding of concepts and how they are organized.

Concepts

• Psychology Definition: Concepts are mental categories that group objects, events, or ideas that share common characteristics.
• Summary: Concepts are like groups in your mind for similar things.

Hierarchies

• Psychology Definition: Hierarchies are systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific.
• Summary: Hierarchies are like organizing things from big to small.

Superordinate Level

• Psychology Definition: The superordinate level is the most general level of categorization.
• Summary: Superordinate level is like saying "animal" instead of "dog."

Midlevel (sometimes called Basic Level)

• Psychology Definition: The midlevel, or basic level, is a more specific level of categorization that is more commonly used.
• Summary: Midlevel is like saying "dog" instead of "animal."

Subordinate Level

• Psychology Definition: The subordinate level is the most specific level of categorization.
• Summary: Subordinate level is like saying "poodle" instead of "dog."

LO 5 Differentiate between formal concepts and natural concepts.

Formal Concepts

• Psychology Definition: Formal concepts are defined by specific rules or features.
• Summary: Formal concepts are like math rules that never change.

Natural Concepts

• Psychology Definition: Natural concepts are formed through everyday experiences and do not have a fixed set of defining features.
• Summary: Natural concepts are like ideas you understand from life, like what a "bird" is.

Prototypes

• Psychology Definition: Prototypes are the best or most typical examples of a concept.
• Summary: Prototypes are like the perfect example of something, like a robin for a bird.

Mental Imagery

• Psychology Definition: Mental imagery involves creating mental pictures or visual representations of objects or events.
• Summary: Mental imagery is like imagining pictures in your mind.

Mental Rotation

• Psychology Definition: Mental rotation is the ability to rotate mental representations of two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects.
• Summary: Mental rotation is like turning shapes in your head.

LO 6 Explain how trial and error and algorithms can be used to solve problems.

Problem Solving

• Psychology Definition: Problem solving involves finding a way to achieve a goal when the path is not immediately clear.
• Summary: Problem solving is figuring out how to fix something.

Understand the Problem (Initial State)

• Psychology Definition: Understanding the problem involves identifying the initial state and the desired goal state.
• Summary: Understanding the problem is like knowing what’s wrong and what you want to happen.

Choose an Approach

• Psychology Definition: Choosing an approach involves selecting a method or strategy to solve the problem.
• Summary: Choosing an approach is picking how to fix the problem.

Trial and Error

• Psychology Definition: Trial and error involves trying different solutions until the problem is solved.
• Summary: Trial and error is trying different things until something works.

Algorithms

• Psychology Definition: Algorithms are step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.
• Summary: Algorithms are like following a recipe to solve a problem.

Heuristics

• Psychology Definition: Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision making.
• Summary: Heuristics are quick ways to solve problems, like guessing.

Evaluate (Goal State)

• Psychology Definition: Evaluating involves assessing whether the chosen approach has solved the problem.
• Summary: Evaluating is checking to see if your solution worked.

LO 7 Identify different types of heuristics used to solve problems.

Heuristics

• Psychology Definition: Heuristics are mental shortcuts that simplify decision making.
• Summary: Heuristics are like quick ways to solve problems.

Means-End Analysis

• Psychology Definition: Means-end analysis involves breaking down a problem into smaller parts and addressing each part to reach the goal.
• Summary: Means-end analysis is like solving a big problem step by step.

Creating Subgoals

• Psychology Definition: Creating subgoals involves setting intermediate goals to reach the final goal.
• Summary: Creating subgoals is like setting smaller goals to reach a big one.

Insight

• Psychology Definition: Insight is a sudden realization of a problem's solution.
• Summary: Insight is like having a lightbulb moment.

Mental Sets

• Psychology Definition: Mental sets are tendencies to approach problems in the same way because that way worked in the past.
• Summary: Mental sets are like always trying to fix something the same way you did before.

Fixation

• Psychology Definition: Fixation is the inability to see a problem from a new perspective.
• Summary: Fixation is being stuck on one way of solving a problem.

Unnecessary Constraints

• Psychology Definition: Unnecessary constraints are self-imposed limitations that hinder problem solving.
• Summary: Unnecessary constraints are rules you think you have to follow but don’t need to.

Functional Fixedness

• Psychology Definition: Functional fixedness is the tendency to see objects as only working in a particular way.
• Summary: Functional fixedness is like only seeing a paperclip as something to hold papers.

Emotional Barriers

• Psychology Definition: Emotional barriers are negative emotions that hinder problem solving.
• Summary: Emotional barriers are like feelings that make it hard to solve problems.

LO 8 Describe the process of decision making and explain how heuristics can lead people astray.

Decision Making

• Psychology Definition: Decision making involves choosing between alternatives.
• Summary: Decision making is picking between different choices.

Availability Heuristic

• Psychology Definition: The availability heuristic involves judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.
• Summary: The availability heuristic is like thinking something is common because you remember it well.

Recency

• Psychology Definition: Recency is the tendency to recall recent events more easily.
• Summary: Recency is remembering things that happened recently better.

Familiarity

• Psychology Definition: Familiarity is the tendency to prefer familiar objects or events.
• Summary: Familiarity is liking things you know.

Frequency

• Psychology Definition: Frequency is the tendency to remember events that happen more often.
• Summary: Frequency is recalling things that happen a lot.

Vividness

• Psychology Definition: Vividness is the tendency to remember vivid or dramatic events more easily.
• Summary: Vividness is remembering things that stand out.

Representativeness Heuristic

• Psychology Definition: The representativeness heuristic involves judging the likelihood of events based on how well they match a prototype.
• Summary: The representativeness heuristic is like thinking someone is a librarian because they look like one.

Confirmation Bias

• Psychology Definition: Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions.
• Summary: Confirmation bias is like only looking for evidence that you’re right.

Hindsight Bias

• Psychology Definition: Hindsight bias is the tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have foreseen it.
• Summary: Hindsight bias is thinking you knew something would happen after it already did.

Framing

• Psychology Definition: Framing is the way an issue is presented, which can influence decision making and judgment.
• Summary: Framing is like the way a question is asked that can change your answer.

Potential Short Answer Questions on the Exam

1. Provide definitions for the following terms related to test construction (a) standardization, (b) reliability, and (c) validity. Each definition is worth one point.

(a) Standardization:

• Standardization involves developing uniform procedures for administering a test and scoring its results. This ensures consistency and fairness in how the test is conducted and interpreted across different individuals or groups.

(b) Reliability:

• Reliability refers to the consistency or stability of a test's scores over time and across different conditions. A reliable test produces similar results when administered under consistent conditions, indicating that the measurement is dependable and free from random error.

(c) Validity:

• Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. It assesses whether the test accurately captures the construct or trait it claims to assess, providing meaningful and useful information about the target behavior or characteristic.

These definitions are fundamental in ensuring that tests are effective tools for measuring various attributes or behaviors in a reliable and valid manner.

Chapter 10

LO 1 Define motivation and explain how extrinsic and intrinsic motivation impact behavior. (The textbook's Learning Objectives 1 and 2 were merged).

Motivation:

• Psychological definition: Motivation refers to the processes that initiate, direct, and sustain goal-directed behavior. It involves the internal and external factors that stimulate desire and energy in people to be continually interested and committed to achieving a goal.
• Summary: Motivation is what makes you want to do something and keep trying to achieve it.

Incentives:

• Psychological definition: Incentives are external stimuli or rewards that motivate behavior by offering positive reinforcement or the avoidance of negative consequences. They can influence individuals' decisions and actions by increasing the likelihood of a desired outcome.
• Summary: Incentives are things like rewards or punishments that make you want to do something more or less.

Extrinsic motivation:

• Psychological definition: Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in activities or behaviors in order to obtain external rewards or to avoid punishment. It is driven by external factors rather than inherent enjoyment or interest in the activity itself.
• Summary: Extrinsic motivation is doing something to get a reward or avoid getting in trouble, not because you like doing it.

Intrinsic motivation:

• Psychological definition: Intrinsic motivation involves engaging in activities because they are personally rewarding or enjoyable, without any obvious external incentives or pressures. It arises from within the individual, stemming from a sense of satisfaction, curiosity, or interest in the task itself.
• Summary: Intrinsic motivation is doing something because you like it and find it interesting or enjoyable.

How extrinsic motivation can reduce intrinsic motivation:

• • Psychological explanation: Extrinsic motivation can sometimes undermine intrinsic motivation when external rewards or pressures diminish the individual's inherent interest or enjoyment in the activity. Over-reliance on external incentives may shift the focus from the pleasure of the activity itself to the pursuit of rewards or avoidance of punishments, thereby reducing the intrinsic satisfaction derived from the task.
  • Summary: If you get rewards for doing something you already like, you might start doing it only for the rewards and not because you enjoy it as much anymore.

LO 2 Summarize instinct theory and explain how arousal theory relates to motivation. (The textbook's Learning Objectives 3 and 5 were merged).

Instincts:

• Psychological definition: Instincts are innate, biologically determined behaviors that are characteristic of a species. They are often automatic and do not require learning, serving important adaptive functions for survival and reproduction.
• Summary: Instincts are natural behaviors that animals and humans are born with to help them live and reproduce.

Evolutionary perspective:

• Psychological definition: The evolutionary perspective examines behavior and mental processes through the lens of natural selection, focusing on how traits and behaviors have evolved over time to enhance survival and reproductive success.
• Summary: This perspective looks at how behaviors have helped species survive and pass on their genes over millions of years.

Arousal theory:

• Psychological definition: Arousal theory proposes that individuals are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, which is the state of being awake, alert, and responsive to stimuli. This theory suggests that people seek activities that help them achieve and maintain an optimal level of arousal.
• Summary: Arousal theory says we all want to stay awake and alert, so we do things that keep us feeling just right.

Optimal arousal:

• Psychological definition: Optimal arousal refers to the level of arousal that is best suited for performing a task or activity effectively. It varies depending on the complexity of the task and individual preferences.
• Summary: Optimal arousal is finding the right amount of energy or alertness you need to do something well.

Sensation seeking:

• Psychological definition: Sensation seeking is the tendency to seek out thrilling and exciting activities, take risks, and engage in novel experiences. It is associated with a preference for high levels of sensory and physical stimulation.
• Summary: Sensation seekers like to do things that are exciting and new, and they don't mind taking risks to feel alive.

Heritability of sensation seeking:

• Psychological definition: Heritability of sensation seeking refers to the extent to which individual differences in sensation seeking behavior can be attributed to genetic factors. Studies suggest that genetics play a significant role in determining the predisposition to seek sensation.
• Summary: Whether you like excitement and new things can be because of your genes, or what you inherit from your parents.

Yerkes-Dodson law:

• Psychological definition: The Yerkes-Dodson law states that performance on tasks is best when arousal levels are moderate; too much or too little arousal can impair performance. It illustrates the relationship between arousal and performance in a bell-shaped curve.
• Summary: The law says you do best on tasks when you're not too bored or too excited—just right.

Higher levels of arousal better for easy tasks, lower levels of arousal better for harder tasks:

• Psychological explanation: For easy tasks, higher arousal levels can improve performance by increasing motivation and attention. In contrast, for difficult tasks that require concentration and complex thinking, lower arousal levels may be optimal to reduce distraction and maintain focus.
• Summary: When things are easy, being excited can help you do better, but when things are hard, being calm and focused might be better.

LO 3 Describe drive-reduction theory and explain how it relates to motivation.

Needs:

• Psychological definition: Needs are physiological or psychological requirements that must be met to ensure survival and well-being. They motivate individuals to engage in behaviors that satisfy these requirements.
• Summary: Needs are things your body or mind needs to stay alive and be healthy, like food, water, and sleep.

Drives:

• Psychological definition: Drives are internal states of tension or arousal that propel individuals to take action to fulfill their needs. They energize and direct behavior toward satisfying specific needs.
• Summary: Drives push you to do things that will satisfy your needs, like feeling thirsty or hungry.

Homeostasis:

• Psychological definition: Homeostasis is the body's tendency to maintain a stable, balanced internal environment. It involves physiological processes that regulate body temperature, fluid balance, metabolism, and other bodily functions to keep conditions within optimal levels.
• Summary: Homeostasis keeps your body stable and healthy by regulating things like temperature and water levels.
• Drive-reduction theory:
  • Psychological definition: Drive-reduction theory proposes that physiological needs create internal states of tension (drives) that motivate organisms to engage in behaviors aimed at reducing or eliminating these states and returning to homeostasis.
  • Summary: This theory says your body wants to fix any imbalances or needs, so you feel motivated to do things like eat when you're hungry or drink when you're thirsty to feel better.

LO 4 Outline Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and explain how self-determination theory relates to motivation. (The textbook's Learning Objectives 6 and 7 were merged).

Maslow:

• Psychological definition: Abraham Maslow was a psychologist who proposed the hierarchy of needs theory, which suggests that human motivation is based on fulfilling a sequence of hierarchical needs, starting with basic physiological needs and culminating in self-actualization.
• Summary: Maslow studied how people's needs motivate them to do things and reach their potential.

Humanistic perspective:

• Psychological definition: The humanistic perspective emphasizes the inherent goodness and potential of human beings. It focuses on personal growth, self-actualization, and the subjective experience of individuals, contrasting with more deterministic or mechanistic views of behavior.
• Summary: This perspective says people are naturally good and try to grow and be their best.

Hierarchy of needs: physiological [hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature etc.]:

• Psychological definition: The physiological needs in Maslow's hierarchy include basic requirements for survival, such as food, water, sleep, and maintaining bodily functions like body temperature and breathing.
• Summary: These are things your body needs to stay alive and healthy.

Safety:

• Psychological definition: Safety needs refer to the desire for physical safety, stability, and security from harm, danger, or threat.
• Summary: Feeling safe and secure is important to feel good and focus on other things.

Love and belongingness:

• Psychological definition: Love and belongingness needs involve the desire for social connection, affection, intimacy, and acceptance by others.
• Summary: Wanting to be liked and have friends and family is important for feeling happy and connected.

Esteem:

• Psychological definition: Esteem needs encompass both the need for self-esteem (self-respect, confidence) and the desire for esteem from others (recognition, respect, status).
• Summary: Feeling good about yourself and being respected by others makes you feel confident and valued.

Self-actualization:

• Psychological definition: Self-actualization is the realization of one's full potential, including personal growth, achieving personal goals, and fulfilling one's aspirations.
• Summary: It's reaching your goals and being the best you can be.

Self-transcendence:

• Psychological definition: Self-transcendence involves going beyond oneself and experiencing a sense of connection to something greater than the individual self, such as nature, spirituality, or the universe.
• Summary: Feeling connected to something bigger than yourself makes you feel fulfilled and happy.

Exceptions to the rule:

• Psychological definition: Exceptions to the rule in Maslow's hierarchy refer to individuals who prioritize higher-level needs (like love or self-esteem) over lower-level needs (like safety or physiological needs) in certain circumstances.
• Summary: Some people might focus on love or feeling good about themselves before they have everything else they need.

Self-determination theory:

• Psychological definition: Self-determination theory is a theory of motivation that emphasizes the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in driving human behavior and personal growth. It suggests that individuals are motivated to fulfill their psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness to support well-being and self-actualization.
• Summary: This theory says people want to feel in control, capable, and connected to others to be happy and successful.

Need for achievement (n-Ach):

• Psychological definition: The need for achievement is a motivation to accomplish challenging goals, excel, and surpass others. Individuals with a high need for achievement seek out tasks that offer personal responsibility, feedback on performance, and moderate levels of risk.
• Summary: Some people are motivated to do well and beat others at things that are hard.
• Need for power (n-Pow):
  • Psychological definition: The need for power is a motivation to influence and control others, make an impact, and be in charge of situations. Individuals with a high need for power seek positions of leadership and authority.
  • Summary: Some people like being in charge and having control over others and situations.

LO 5 Discuss how the stomach and the hypothalamus make us feel hunger.

Stomach and hunger:

• Psychological definition: The stomach plays a role in hunger by contracting when it is empty, sending signals to the brain that trigger the sensation of hunger.
• Summary: Your stomach tells your brain when you need to eat by squeezing when it's empty.

Blood sugar:

• Psychological definition: Blood sugar, or blood glucose, is the primary source of energy for cells in the body and brain. It is regulated by insulin and glucagon hormones, which maintain glucose levels within a stable range.
• Summary: Blood sugar gives your body and brain energy, and hormones keep it at the right level.

Hypothalamus:

• Psychological definition: The hypothalamus is a small region of the brain that regulates various physiological processes, including hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sleep. It integrates signals from the nervous and endocrine systems to maintain homeostasis.
• Summary: The hypothalamus in your brain controls things like hunger, thirst, and how warm you are.

Lateral hypothalamus (LH):

• Psychological definition: The lateral hypothalamus is involved in initiating eating behavior and regulating food intake. Damage to this area can lead to decreased appetite and weight loss.
• Summary: The lateral hypothalamus makes you feel hungry and start eating.

Orexins:

• Psychological definition: Orexins are neuropeptides produced by neurons in the lateral hypothalamus that play a role in regulating arousal, wakefulness, and appetite. They stimulate hunger and increase food intake.
• Summary: Orexins are chemicals in your brain that make you feel awake and hungry.

Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH):

• Psychological definition: The ventromedial hypothalamus is involved in regulating feelings of fullness and satiety. Stimulation of this area can lead to decreased food intake and weight loss.
• Summary: The ventromedial hypothalamus makes you feel full and stop eating.

Leptin:

• Psychological definition: Leptin is a hormone produced by fat cells that regulates appetite and energy balance by signaling to the brain about the body's energy stores. Higher levels of leptin reduce hunger and increase energy expenditure.
• Summary: Leptin tells your brain you have enough energy stored, so you don't need to eat as much.

Ghrelin:

• Psychological definition: Ghrelin is a hormone produced by the stomach and pancreas that stimulates appetite and promotes food intake. It increases before meals and decreases after eating.
• Summary: Ghrelin makes you feel hungry and want to eat.

Insulin:

• Psychological definition: Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates glucose metabolism. It facilitates the uptake of glucose into cells and helps maintain blood sugar levels within a normal range.
• Summary: Insulin helps your body use sugar for energy and keeps your blood sugar stable.

Cholecystokinin (CCK):

• • Psychological definition: Cholecystokinin is a peptide hormone released by cells in the small intestine in response to food intake, especially fatty foods. It promotes feelings of fullness and reduces appetite.
  • Summary: CCK tells your brain you're full and helps you stop eating, especially after fatty foods.

LO 6 Discuss factors that influence obesity and weight loss. (This Learning Objective was added.)

Portion distortion:

• Psychological definition: Portion distortion refers to the tendency for individuals to underestimate the amount of food they are consuming when portion sizes are larger than standard or recommended servings. This can lead to overeating and contribute to weight gain.
• Summary: Portion distortion happens when you eat more than you realize because the serving sizes are bigger than usual.

Portion size:

• Psychological definition: Portion size refers to the amount of food served or consumed in a single sitting or meal. It can influence calorie intake and affect weight management.
• Summary: Portion size is how much food you eat at one time, which can affect how much you weigh.

Body Mass Index [BMI]: > 25 overweight, >30 obese:

• Psychological definition: BMI is a measure of body fat based on height and weight. A BMI over 25 is considered overweight, and over 30 is considered obese, indicating increased risk for health problems related to weight.
• Summary: BMI is a number that tells if you are overweight or obese based on how tall you are and how much you weigh.

Trend of increasing obesity rates over time:

• Psychological definition: The trend of increasing obesity rates refers to the observed rise in the proportion of individuals with BMI levels indicating overweight or obesity over recent decades. Factors contributing to this trend include changes in diet, lifestyle, and environmental factors.
• Summary: More and more people are becoming overweight or obese over the years because of changes in how we eat and live.

Set point/settling point:

• Psychological definition: Set point or settling point theory suggests that the body has a natural weight range or set point that it tries to maintain through regulating hunger, metabolism, and energy expenditure. It may adjust over time based on lifestyle changes.
• Summary: Your body has a weight it likes to stay at and tries to keep by making you feel hungry or full.

Factors affecting obesity: genes, increasing food consumption, decreasing activity levels, family behaviors, conditioning eating, lack of sleep, too much screen time, access to healthy food, SES, bottle fed:

• Psychological definition: These factors influence obesity:
  • Genes: Some people are more likely to be overweight because of their genes.
  • Increasing food consumption: Eating more food, especially high-calorie foods, can lead to weight gain.
  • Decreasing activity levels: Being less active can make it easier to gain weight.
  • Family behaviors: How your family eats and exercises can affect your weight.
  • Conditioning eating: Eating because of habits or emotions, not hunger, can lead to weight gain.
  • Lack of sleep: Not sleeping enough can make it easier to gain weight.
  • Too much screen time: Spending a lot of time watching TV or on devices can lead to less activity and weight gain.
  • Access to healthy food: Not having healthy food available can make it harder to eat well.
  • SES: How much money you have can affect your weight.
  • Bottle fed: Being fed formula as a baby can lead to more weight gain later.
• Summary: These things can make it easier to gain weight, like family habits, not getting enough sleep, or not having healthy food to eat.

Weight loss strategies: set realistic goals, get regular exercise, set a schedule for eating, track intake, drink water, get social support:

• Psychological definition: Strategies for losing weight include:
  • Setting realistic goals: Planning to lose weight a little at a time can help.
  • Getting regular exercise: Moving around a lot can help you lose weight.
  • Setting a schedule for eating: Eating at the same time every day can help you eat less.
  • Tracking intake: Writing down what you eat can help you eat less.
  • Drinking water: Drinking lots of water can help you eat less and stay healthy.
  • Getting social support: Having friends or family help you lose weight can make it easier.
• Summary: These are ways to lose weight like making plans, moving more, eating at the same time every day, writing down what you eat, drinking lots of water, and getting help from others.

LO 7 Define emotions and explain how they are different from moods.

Emotion:

• Psychological definition: Emotion is a complex psychological state involving physiological arousal, subjective feelings or thoughts, and behavioral expressions. It typically arises in response to specific stimuli or situations and motivates adaptive behaviors.
• Summary: Emotion is how you feel inside, what your body does, and how you act because of something that happens.

Physiological component:

• Psychological definition: The physiological component of emotion involves bodily responses such as changes in heart rate, breathing, hormone levels, and muscle tension. These responses are part of the body's automatic reaction to emotional stimuli.
• Summary: Your body reacts to emotions by changing how fast your heart beats, how you breathe, and other things you can't control.

Behavioral component:

• Psychological definition: The behavioral component of emotion refers to observable actions or expressions that accompany emotional experiences. These can include facial expressions, gestures, body language, and other outward behaviors.
• Summary: Your behavior changes when you feel emotions, like how you move or act.

Cognitive subjective experience (the subjective psychological experience):

• Psychological definition: The cognitive subjective experience of emotion refers to the personal and subjective feelings or thoughts associated with an emotional state. It involves interpreting and making sense of emotional experiences based on personal beliefs, memories, and interpretations.
• Summary: This is how you personally feel and think about your emotions, based on what you believe and remember.

Emotions are more intense but less stable than moods:

• Psychological explanation: Emotions are intense feelings that are usually short-lived and triggered by specific events or stimuli. They can be strong and affect your behavior. Moods, on the other hand, are more stable, longer-lasting emotional states that are not necessarily tied to a specific event.
• Summary: Emotions are strong feelings that change quickly because of something that happens, while moods last longer and are more steady.

Emotions are more likely than moods to have a cause and are more likely to affect one’s behavior:

• Psychological explanation: Emotions typically have a clear cause or trigger, such as an event or thought, and they can lead to immediate changes in behavior. Moods are less likely to have a specific cause and may not directly influence behavior as strongly.
• Summary: Emotions usually happen because of something, and they make you act differently right away.

Emotion dimensions: valence, arousal level:

• Psychological definition: Emotion dimensions refer to two key aspects of emotional experiences:
  • Valence: Refers to the positive or negative quality of an emotion, indicating whether it is pleasant (positive valence) or unpleasant (negative valence).
  • Arousal level: Refers to the intensity or activation level of an emotion, ranging from low arousal (calm, relaxed) to high arousal (excited, agitated).
• Summary: Emotions can feel good or bad (valence) and strong or weak (arousal level), depending on what caused them.

LO 8 List the major theories of emotion and describe how they differ.

Sympathetic nervous system:

• Psychological definition: The sympathetic nervous system is part of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body's resources in response to stress or danger. It activates the "fight or flight" response, increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and preparing the body for action.
• Summary: The sympathetic nervous system gets your body ready to deal with danger by making your heart beat faster and getting you ready to move quickly.

Fight or flight:

• Psychological definition: Fight or flight is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival. It prepares the body to either confront the threat (fight) or flee to safety (flight).
• Summary: Fight or flight is what your body does to keep you safe by making you ready to fight or run away from danger.

James-Lange theory – physiological arousal comes before the subjective emotional experience:

• Psychological definition: The James-Lange theory proposes that physiological arousal precedes and triggers the subjective emotional experience. In other words, we feel emotions because of the changes in our body.
• Summary: This theory says your body reacts first, and then you feel an emotion because of what your body does.

Cannon-Bard theory – physiological arousal and the subjective emotional experience occur simultaneously:

• Psychological definition: The Cannon-Bard theory suggests that physiological arousal and the subjective emotional experience occur simultaneously, independently of each other. Emotions and bodily responses happen at the same time but separately.
• Summary: This theory says your body reacts and you feel an emotion at the same time, but one doesn't cause the other.

Thalamus:

• Psychological definition: The thalamus is a brain structure that acts as a relay station for sensory information, including signals related to emotions. It directs incoming sensory information to the cerebral cortex and other parts of the brain.
• Summary: The thalamus helps your brain process and understand feelings and other things you sense.

Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory – general arousal plus cognitive label = subjective emotional experience:

• Psychological definition: Schachter and Singer's two-factor theory proposes that emotions are determined by two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation or label of the arousal. The subjective emotional experience depends on how we interpret or explain the arousal.
• Summary: This theory says you feel emotions based on how your body feels and what you think is causing it.

Cognitive appraisal – cognitive appraisal of the stimulus leads to the subjective emotional experience:

• Psychological definition: Cognitive appraisal theory suggests that emotions are determined by our evaluation or appraisal of an event or situation. Our subjective emotional experience depends on how we interpret the meaning and significance of the stimulus.
• Summary: How you feel about something depends on what you think about it.

Lie detection:

• Psychological definition: Lie detection refers to techniques or methods used to determine whether someone is being truthful or deceptive in their responses, often involving psychological or physiological measures.
• Summary: Lie detection is trying to figure out if someone is telling the truth or lying.

Polygraph

• Psychological definition: A polygraph, commonly known as a lie detector, is a device that measures physiological responses such as heart rate, blood pressure, and sweating to detect changes associated with emotional arousal, which may indicate deception.
• Summary: A polygraph measures your body's reactions to see if you might be lying.

Questions about the validity of polygraph tests:

• Psychological explanation: There are concerns about the validity of polygraph tests because physiological responses can be influenced by factors other than deception, such as anxiety or stress. False positives and false negatives can occur, leading to inaccurate results.
• Summary: Polygraph tests might not always show if someone is lying because your body can react the same way for other reasons.

Guilty knowledge test:

• Psychological definition: The guilty knowledge test is a type of polygraph test that assesses whether a person has knowledge of specific details related to a crime scene or event. It relies on measuring physiological responses to determine if the individual recognizes details only a guilty person would know.
• Summary: The guilty knowledge test tries to see if someone knows things only the person who did a crime would know.

fMRI scans:

• • Psychological definition: Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans are neuroimaging techniques that measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. They provide detailed images of brain structure and function, helping researchers understand brain activity associated with emotions, thoughts, and behaviors.
  • Summary: fMRI scans show pictures of your brain and how it works to help scientists learn about feelings, thoughts, and actions.

LO 9 Discuss evidence to support the idea that emotions are universal. Indicate how display rules influence the expression of emotion. (The textbook's Learning Objectives 11 and 12 were merged).

Basic emotions: fear, anger, disgust, happy, sad, surprise:

• Psychological definition: Basic emotions are universal emotional states that are considered fundamental and distinct. They include fear (in response to threat), anger (in response to injustice or frustration), disgust (in response to offensive stimuli), happiness (positive feelings), sadness (negative feelings), and surprise (reaction to unexpected events).
• Summary: Basic emotions are feelings everyone has, like being scared, mad, grossed out, happy, sad, or surprised.

Facial expressions perceived the same way cross-culturally:

• Psychological definition: Facial expressions that convey basic emotions are recognized similarly across different cultures, suggesting a universal understanding of emotional signals through facial cues.
• Summary: People in different cultures understand emotions by looking at faces in the same way.

Babies blind from birth display the same facial expressions:

• Psychological definition: Infants born blind show the same facial expressions for basic emotions as sighted infants, indicating that these expressions are innate and not learned visually.
• Summary: Babies who can't see still make the same faces for feelings as babies who can.

Distinct physiological patterns for the basic emotions:

• Psychological definition: Each basic emotion is associated with unique physiological changes in the body, such as changes in heart rate, breathing, hormone levels, and muscle tension, which contribute to distinct emotional experiences.
• Summary: Different emotions make your body do different things, like making your heart beat faster or your muscles tense up.

Display rules:

• Psychological definition: Display rules are cultural norms or social expectations that dictate how, when, and where emotions should be expressed or suppressed. They influence how individuals manage and display their emotions in social settings.
• Summary: Display rules tell you when it's okay to show feelings and when you should hide them.

Facial feedback hypothesis:

• • Psychological definition: The facial feedback hypothesis proposes that facial expressions can influence emotional experience. For example, smiling may actually make you feel happier, while frowning might make you feel sadder.
  • Summary: This idea says your face can change how you feel, like smiling might make you feel happier and frowning might make you feel sadder.

LO 10 Describe the role the amygdala plays in the experience of fear.

Thalamus signals the amygdala which triggers the sympathetic nervous system:

• Psychological definition: The thalamus relays sensory information to the amygdala, a brain structure involved in emotional processing. When the amygdala perceives a threat (such as fear-inducing stimuli), it activates the sympathetic nervous system, triggering the "fight or flight" response.
• Summary: Your brain's thalamus tells the amygdala about danger, which makes your body react to protect you.

Fear:

• Psychological definition: Fear is an emotional response to perceived threats or dangers, characterized by physiological arousal (such as increased heart rate and sweating), cognitive processes (anticipation of harm), and behavioral responses (such as fleeing or freezing).
• Summary: Fear is what you feel when you think something could hurt you, making your heart beat faster and making you want to run away.

LeDoux:

• Psychological definition: Joseph LeDoux is a neuroscientist known for his research on the biological mechanisms of emotion, particularly the neural pathways involved in fear processing, including the role of the amygdala.
• Summary: LeDoux studies how your brain reacts to fear and what parts of your brain control your feelings.

Fast track to fear:

• • Psychological definition: The fast track to fear refers to a neural pathway identified by Joseph LeDoux, where sensory information about potential threats can be quickly relayed from the thalamus directly to the amygdala. This allows for rapid emotional responses to danger without extensive cognitive processing.
  • Summary: This is a quick way your brain reacts to danger by sending messages straight to the part of your brain that controls fear, so you can act fast.

LO 11 Discuss factors that may influence happiness. (I edited the book’s Learning Objective 14).

Positive psychology:

• Psychological definition: Positive psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on the study and promotion of positive emotions, strengths, virtues, and factors that contribute to well-being and happiness.
• Summary: Positive psychology is about studying and helping people feel good and be happy.

Flow:

• Psychological definition: Flow is a mental state characterized by complete absorption in an activity, where one is fully immersed and focused, experiencing a sense of energized focus, enjoyment, and fulfillment.
• Summary: Flow is when you're so focused and happy doing something, you forget about everything else.

Predictors of happiness: genetics, temperament, working toward goals, engaging hobbies, close friendships, satisfying marriage, religious faith, exercise, be nice to others, get enough sleep, optimism, count your blessings, positive experiences:

• Psychological explanation: These factors influence happiness:
  • Genetics and temperament: Some of how happy you are comes from your genes and how you act.
  • Working toward goals and engaging hobbies: Having things to do and enjoy makes you happier.
  • Close friendships and satisfying marriage: Having friends and being with someone you love makes you happy.
  • Religious faith: Believing in something can make you feel good.
  • Exercise: Moving around can make you feel better.
  • Being nice to others: Helping people can make you happy.
  • Getting enough sleep and being optimistic: Resting and thinking positive can help you feel good.
  • Counting your blessings and having positive experiences: Remembering good things can make you feel better.
• Summary: These things can make you happier, like being with friends, doing things you like, believing in something, moving around, helping others, resting, thinking positive, and remembering good things.

Adaptation level phenomenon (the book alluded to this when it talked about a happiness set point and habituation but did not use the term adaptation level phenomenon):

• Psychological definition: The adaptation level phenomenon refers to the tendency of individuals to judge new stimuli or experiences based on their recent or past experiences. It involves adjusting to changes and returning to a stable level of happiness despite positive or negative events.
• Summary: Your happiness goes back to how it was before, even if things change for a while.
• Relative deprivation:
  • Psychological definition: Relative deprivation is the feeling of being worse off compared to others or to one's own expectations. It occurs when individuals perceive themselves as unfairly disadvantaged or deprived relative to others.
  • Summary: Feeling like you don't have as much as other people can make you feel unhappy, even if you have what you need.

Potential Short Answer Questions on the Exam

1. Define the following terms related to motivation (a) intrinsic motivation, (b) homeostasis, and (c) incentives. Each definition is worth one point. This question is worth three points.

Intrinsic motivation:

• Psychological definition: Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity for its own sake, because the activity itself is enjoyable, interesting, or personally satisfying, rather than for external rewards or pressures.
• Summary: Intrinsic motivation is when you do something because you like it or find it interesting, not because you get something else for doing it.

Homeostasis:

• Psychological definition: Homeostasis is the body's tendency to maintain a stable, balanced internal state. It involves physiological processes that regulate variables such as body temperature, fluid balance, and metabolism within a narrow range.
• Summary: Homeostasis is when your body keeps things like temperature and fluids steady to stay healthy.

Incentives:

1. Psychological definition: Incentives are external stimuli or rewards that motivate behavior. They can be tangible rewards (such as money or prizes) or intangible rewards (such as praise or recognition) that encourage individuals to pursue specific goals or outcomes.
2. Summary: Incentives are things that make you want to do something, like rewards or praise.
3. Explain how each of the following hormones influence sensations of hunger (a) orexins, (b) leptin, (c) ghrelin, and (d) insulin. Each explanation is worth 3/4 of a point. This question is worth three points.
4. Orexins:
   1. Explanation: Orexins, also known as hypocretins, are neurotransmitters produced in the hypothalamus. They play a role in regulating arousal, wakefulness, and appetite. Orexins promote hunger by stimulating the appetite centers in the brain and increasing food intake.
   2. Summary: Orexins make you feel hungry by telling your brain it's time to eat.
5. Leptin:
   1. Explanation: Leptin is a hormone produced primarily by fat cells (adipocytes) and signals to the brain about the body's energy stores. When fat stores are sufficient, leptin levels rise and act on the hypothalamus to suppress appetite and increase energy expenditure.
   2. Summary: Leptin tells your brain when you've eaten enough by making you feel full.
6. Ghrelin:
   1. Explanation: Ghrelin is known as the "hunger hormone" because it is primarily produced in the stomach and stimulates appetite. Ghrelin levels increase before meals and decrease after eating. It acts on the hypothalamus to increase hunger and food intake.
   2. Summary: Ghrelin makes you feel hungry by telling your brain it's time to eat.
7. Insulin:
   1. Explanation: Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas in response to rising blood glucose levels after a meal. It facilitates the uptake of glucose into cells for energy use or storage. Insulin indirectly influences hunger by helping to regulate blood sugar levels. Low insulin levels, such as in diabetes or fasting states, can lead to increased appetite.
   2. Summary: Insulin helps regulate your blood sugar levels and can affect how hungry you feel.
8. Explain each of the following theories of emotion (a) James-Lange, (b) Cannon-Bard, and (c) Schachter and Singer’s two factor theory. Each explanation is worth one point. This question is worth three points.

James-Lange theory:

• Explanation: The James-Lange theory of emotion proposes that emotions are a result of physiological reactions to stimuli in the environment. According to this theory, physiological changes (such as increased heart rate or sweating) occur first in response to a stimulus, and the emotional experience follows as a result of interpreting those physiological changes. In other words, we feel afraid because we tremble, or happy because we smile.
• Summary: Emotions arise from our body's response to a stimulus; we feel emotions based on how our body reacts.

Cannon-Bard theory:

• Explanation: The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion suggests that emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously and independently of each other in response to a stimulus. According to this theory, a stimulus triggers both the physiological response (such as increased heart rate) and the subjective experience of emotion (such as feeling afraid) simultaneously. Unlike the James-Lange theory, it posits that physiological changes and emotional experiences are separate but happen at the same time.
• Summary: Emotions and physical reactions happen together but aren't caused by each other; they're both responses to what happens.

Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory:

• Explanation: Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory combines elements of both the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories. It proposes that emotions are determined by both physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal. According to this theory, when we experience physiological arousal (such as increased heart rate), we search the environment for cues to label or interpret that arousal. The interpretation then determines the specific emotion experienced. For example, if you feel aroused and you're in a scary place, you might feel fear; if you're at a party, you might feel excited.
• Summary: Emotions come from how our body feels and what we think about the situation, like feeling scared in a dark place or excited at a party based on how our body feels.