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CHAPTER 1

DIMENSIONS OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Social problems exist because of intervening factors in the environ- ment where we live, thus causing dysfunction of any unit of subsystem in the social system.

Diuersions of Social Problems

DIMENSIONS CF SOCIAL PROBLEMS

The dimension of social problems, over the years have been the subject of sociological research and scientific investigation to lock into the underlying causes of human conditions and miseries considered destructive to society and virtually repugnant to moral standard and good taste. The social problems that are evidently felt adversely affect our everyday life. Social problems come to exist because of various intervening factors in the environment we live causing dysfunction of any unit of subsystem in the social system. Social problems are parts of human existence and perhaps we can infer that all societies have social problems.

Origins of Social Problems

The existence of social problems can be traced to their social origins. A social problem initially involves a discrepancy, judged intolerable, between social standards and social reality. Social conditions as they exist are not taken to be a problem until actual conditions are judged not to measure up sufficiency to social (i.e., shared) standards. The substantive causes of social problems must themselves be social, not merely their formal attributes. Various crimes and family disorganization constitute social problems inasmuch as they result primarily from identifiable social circumstances. Socially disrupted events that are not man-made like force majeure like earthquakes, eruptions of volcanoes, floods, typhoons and perhaps famine and epidemics, these and all other nature caused occurrences that greatly affect the human lives in a society would be ruled out.

Sociological Diagnosis of Social Problems

Social conflicts and confusions brought about by various social problems and pressures which put the people at a disadvantage in life and which sociologists usually describe as the "social crises of our time" need a careful and exhaustive examination and analysis. In examining the sociological context of a problem, the sociologist treats at least six questions:

1.      The central criterion of a social problem: a significant

2. The origin of social problems;.

3. The judges of social problems;

14. The manifest and latent social problems;

The social perception of a social problem; and finally, The ways in which belief in the corrigibility of unwanted social situations enter into the definition of social problems.

There seems to be no limit to the ways in which society may be approached for purposes of understanding. It can be seen in terms of its dominant values, its organized institutions, its technological innovations and achievements, or its spiritual and intellectual systems. According to philosopher Whitehead, it is "a stort of searchlight, elucidating some of the facts, and retreating the remainder into an omitted background."

The importance of studying social problems can not be overemphasized since social problems affect every aspect of social and psychological well-being of every individual in a society an understanding and effects of these social menace should be the concern of every human being.

According to Stanley (1980), social problems are grouped into two categories; (1) those acts and conditions that violate the norms and values present in society, e.g.,'crime, mental illness, and deviancy. (2) the conditions that virtually cause psychic and material suffering for any segment of the population, e.g., inadequate health care program for the sick and lack of assistance for the old and the disabled and the ineffective rehabilitation program of the needy. Mc Caghy (1985)- recognized the following conditions, that is criminal in nature such as murder, assault, robbery, theft, burglary, arson, larcery, and rape, assaults against children and spouses, organizational deviance such as employees or worker theft, police, corruption, and corporate deviance, drug use such as alcohol, heroin, and marijuana, prostitution, homosexuality and promiscuity. Liazos (1982) categozied social problems. resulting in the conditions of inequality brought about by capitalism as an economic system causing racism, sexism, worker alienation, exorbitant pieces of basic essential like food, medicine and medical care, housing, substandard education, ecological and culture destruction Jones, Gallagher, and Mcfalls, Jr. (1988) identified these social problems, eg, mental disorder, disease, death, disintegrating traditional family, population problems poverty, crime, homosexuality and prostitution, mental disorders, racial discrimination and threats of nuclear weapons. More and more (1982) enumerated the following conditions causing social problems, e.g., poverty, racial injustice, sexual inequality, crime drugs, neglect of public interests and-concerns, old age consumerism. environmental degradation and pollution and problems of urbanization and social change.. For Horton and Leslie. (1981), they enumerated problems like. vested interest and various pressure groups that purportedly seek to preserve the status quo of the political climate, religious problems and conflicts because of religious beliefs and orientations, tax exemptions for church properties and income, commercialization of education, inequality of access and opportunity to quality education, expensive and unproductive educational thrusts and directions through experimentation and innovation, urban and rural problems brought about by damaged roads and other infrastructures, congestions, slum proliferation and filth, and traffic mess. Communication problems also arise because of suppressed and unbiased media due to monopoly and arbitrary control, suppression of civil liberties and often types of violation of human rights land grabbing and displacements . of cultural communities in their ancestral lands. Julian and Komblum (1983), recognized other related social problems to physical and psy- chological health, sex and social norms, alcohol and drugs, criminal offenders, violence, aging, the changing family patterns, technology and society, corporate power, work ethic and environment, urban prob- lems and soaring population growth.

Social Problems vis-a-vis the Social System

Social problems normally exist when there is something that threatens or offends a group of people in a society. Society can be likened to a healthy organism that responds to a healthy environment. The moment it is invaded by destructive focus a social problem is likely to occur. It may be observed that whatever the specific cause of a social problem, there are always situations and circumstances that are involved about human behavior considered off tangent with one or more social value in the social system. Social problems virtually threatens a social system and consequently hinder the realization and fulfillment of its desired goals. They exist when a significant number of people in a particular community perceive an undesirable difference between social ideas, and social realities and be reminded through Collective effort. Raab and Selznick (1964), view a social problem in human relationships that seriously threatens society itself and as result impedes the important aspirations of many people.

Social Problems and Issues Social Disorganization

Generally, problems are parts of our everyday lives and these occur when something does not work the way it should and disrupts the normal flow of events in the social system causing disequilibrium and consequently, social disorganization. The malfunctioning of the smooth operation of a group results to the impairment of the existing social order. Allen (1967), views the problems with respect to the impediment brought about by social pressures and other concomitant factors causing difficulty to achieve and maintain a particular system of social operations especially when social regulation and moral integration are weak. According to Raab and Selznick (1961), social problems exist when society's ability to address relationships among people seems to be failing, when its organized institutions are faltering, its laws are treated with scorn and contempt and mockingly insulted due to its failure to implement, the transmission of its cherished values from generation to the next is breaking down and the framework of social expectations is being shaken. Babbie (1980), refers social disorganization to the condition or disruption, chaos and conflict in society, when the various structures and components of the social system do not work harmoniously. When the social control mechanism are weakened and organized institutions become ineffective in discharging their functions to meet the needs of the members of a society, it is to likely that social disorganizations may occur. Consequently, some members may resort to other means in order to survive. Society promotes and acts its goals and defines the ways to achieve these goals through legitimate means which are available to all members. If there will be a wide disparity between the set goals and lawful, means to achieve the desired objectives some members, may commit the act of deviation. Weakening of social control often lead to an increase in the magnitude of social menace in a society.

Economic Condition

Man, the rationale and emotional being, has a variety and complexity of wants and desires throughout his entire existence. From the basic needs to the most whimsical desires, human wants abound in every man. Most often he is regarded as an insatiable creature.

The need to survive, however, and assert himself in society is one of the fundamental goals which motivates the individual, and in so doing social problems which are also equated in economic system, stem from the dysfunction of an unequitable distribution of resources to the members of society. In effect, social problems are conditions in society such as poverty and other economic deprivation that induce material and psychic sufferings for certain segments of the population (Eitzen, 1983). Some individuals get too much from the fruits of their labor while others get too little causing discontentment. The social and economic relationships in terms of material needs are basic in human survival. In the Communist Manifesto of 1847 of Karl Marx showed that the working masses (the proletariat) who have no resources other than their labor should emit to fight to throw the capitalistic economic systems. According to Marx and Ebles, the history of society up to this contemporary period was a continuous class struggle Marx argued that political revolution was extremely significant in the evolutionary process of society and this is the only means whereby the improvement of social conditions of the working class could be attained. He believed that social conflicts and strifes could cause social change. Marx saw the industrial societies of his time, such as England and Germany, where the factory was the center of conflict between the exploiters (the owners of the means of production) and the exploited (the factory workers). This relationship had been the entire system, of economic, social and political involvement which had virtually been established to maintain the power and dominance of the owners over the workers.

Social problems brought about by economic factors stem from unequal distribution and allocation of material resources and inequality of power of social classes which touch every aspect of man's social being.

Social Problems Infringes on Culture

More are folkways which are elements of culture and are of central importance accepted without question and embodying the fundamental moral views of a certain group. Like norms and values that are parts of culture holds a particular society together. Society as a "collection of people with similar aspirations, feel bound together And abide by special patterns, e.g., mores and folkways norms and Avalues for the group, who interact and are able to withstand the test of time. They survived because they serve the interests and are responsible in meeting and satisfying the various needs of the members of the society. Cultural elements have to be functionally interrelated and integrated in the social system to preserve social order.

Social problems in many instances infringe the society in a manner which virtually goes against the set norms and cherished values which they preserve and uphold over a long period of time.

According to Sulliven (1980), social problems are likely to exist when a powerful and influential group is aware of a social condition that threatens its values and that may be remedied by collective group action. Social problems are behavioral patterns regarded by a large part of society as an infringement of one or more generally accepted. norms (Merton and Nisket, 1970).

Some social scientists view social problems as fundamentally biological and psychological in nature. Social behavior in these break- downs and deviations is widely regarded as immoral, illegal or po- tentially destructive to the established institutions.

Social Problems and Deviance

Sociologists have considered deviance to refer to behavior that is banned, censured, stigmatized or penalized. Most often, it is portrayed as a breaking of rules. Deviance is "an alleged break of the social order" (Rubington and Weinberg, 1981). It is any act that violates social expectations, elicits social disapproval, and causes people to exclaim, "Something must be done." The act of non- conformity with the norm is called deviance. Broom, Selznick and Darroch (1930) use the term to refer to any violation of social norms and expectations. A question may be asked, "Who are those people who violate social norms?" Sociologists classify them into various types: trippers, prostitutes, homosexuals, thieves, exhibitionists, murderers, nudists, delinquents, hippies, drug addicts, and criminals. They are classified as individuals or group deviants, or cultural or psychological deviants, and secondary or primary deviants (Horton and Hunt, 1980). Sociologists are not in accord about whether all these roles are unified and what it is that may be said to unify them. According to Scott, "the property of deviance is conferred upon things that are perceived as being anomalous." Deviant matters are things out of place, things that make no sense and are disturbing. Deviance is also a relative concept. It varies from time to time and from place to place, its significance being unstable For a Christian Filipino, a man who marries more than one spouse may be branded as an infidel husband. On the other hand, a Muslim Filipino can marry more than one wife, as long as he is capable of supporting all of. them.

Deviance, in some cases, depends upon the status and role one holds. Among the conservatives, single women are not expected to go home without a chaperon late in the evening, but it is an acceptable practice among single men. Adolescents who drink and smoke are looked down and are considered deviants, but for adults, such acts are normal.

Deviance exists in all societies and is found in simple, complex, industrialized, agrarian, urban and rural regions. It is universal and anthropologists claim that no society or culture, large or small, rural or urban, has complete behavioral conformity. Deviance involves a social audience that defines certain behavior of some people that goes beyond the tolerance limit of social norms. Social norms, rules, and expectations about appropriate or inappropriate behavior of certain people exist in all societies and people everywhere have some control devices to enforce accepted rules and provide sanctions to those who do not conform with them.

Types of Deviation

1. Primary and secondary deviation.

a. Primary deviation refers to the behavior of an individual which is in disagreement with the prescribed norms but is "tolerated by others or is successfully concealed from others" (Lement, 1978). Examples of primary deviations are cases of students cheating in examinations, indiscriminate throwing of garbage in a "no littering" areas or a refusal to declare one's whole annual income for tax purposes.

b. Secondary deviation refers to the labeled act of deviation when an individual who, throughout his life, was a conformist,committed an act of killing as a defense of his life, may be branded as a criminal. The way other people relate to this individual is now Finfluenced by the act and label given and sociologists used the term istiema (Goldman). This; in effect," sets the stigmatized person apart from the ordinary people (Brown, Selnick and Darroch, 1980), An example of secondary deviants are prostitutes who find difficulty in returning to the society's mainstream. Labeling, though, becomes a stumbling block for deviants.

Individual and Group Deviation

a. Individual deviation refers to the act of deviation committed by a person against the norm of his own group or subculture. An example of this kind of deviation is when a person who belongs to a conservative group, has illicit marital relations with another individual, knowing that his culture identifies clearly that such relation is taboo. This non-conformity of the individual with the established norm of the group creates individual deviation.

b. Group deviation refers to the act of conforming to the norms of the group which is in disagreement with the norms of the larger society. An individual may be well socialized with the group's norm but the group's values may contradict the expectations of the larger society. An example of this type of deviation is the street corner gang. Jocano in "Slum as a Way of Life" (1975) studied the behavior and norms of this deviant subculture and came up with the description of the norms of the group which are generally contradicting the norms of a bigger society. Jocano noted that:

"Almost all of the gang members we have worked with had records of various arrests ranging from qualified theft to murder. Police records and jail experiences are the two highly rated determinants of status among gang members. A member who does not have any police record is not a gang member. A member who does not have any police record is not considered a man; his dependability as a member is suspected and his judgment is considered highly unreliable.

Thus, from the gang's standpoint, arrests and jail confinements are part of the initiation to the exciting street type. These are proofs that an individual has finally become a man. Once a gang member has a police record, his next goal is to elude arrests for most of the crimes he will commit thereafter."

Theories and Causes of Deviance

Deviance varies by time, place, situation and social status. Given the wide variations in deviance, these questions may be asked: "What causes deviance?" "Why do people violate social norms?" "Why do people conform and obey social norms?"

Social scientists have developed a number of theories to explain deviance. Theories often reflect the discipline from which they developed. Biological theories focus on genetic, anatomical or physiological factors. Psychological theories focus on personality, motives, aggression, frustration, or ego strength. Sociologists tend to focus on the socio-cultural, organizational, environmental, and group factors.

Biological Theories of Deviance

Deviance is assumed as not just a social pathology or mental illness but an unhealthy biological organism as well. This assumption may be attributed to certain defects or weaknesses of an individual's physical condition.

Biological theories of deviance are most likely referred to Italian physician-psychiatrist Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909), who became interested in the scientific study of crime. He believed that the physical characteristics of the criminal should be thoroughly analyzed. He was convinced that the major determinants of crimes committed by individuals were biological) His conclusion were based on a comparison of four hundred prison inmates with a group of Italian soldiers and his findings were that the prisoners displayed physical abnormalities' such as deviations in head size and shape, eye defects, receding chins, and excessively long arms. This led him to believe that criminal tendencies are hereditary.

Another research on biological factors was done by the American anthropologist Ernest Hooton in 1930. He claimed that criminals are organically inferior to "normal" people. In 1940, William Sheldon attempted to link body type to behavior by classifying people into three categories; e.g., endomorphs, who are soft, round, and usually fat; mesomorphs, who are muscular, stocky and athletic, and ectomorphs, who are skinny and fragile. According to him, a disproportionate percentage of criminals were found to be mesomorphs, but the reasons for this remained unclear.

Psychological Theories of Deviance

The psychological theories of deviance are often rooted in a person's mind rather than in his body and focus on factors as personality structure, learning, goals, interests, motivations, will power, frustration, anxiety, guilt, and other psychic conditions and responses.

Psychological theories often associate deviance with a sickness which is the result of a psychological abnormality, a psychopathic personality or a mental illness. It may be inferred that mentally ill people may commit deviant acts, but this theory does not account for deviance among people who are not mentally ill: When needs are not fulfilled, frustration results; and this, consequently, leads to aggression and, most often, to anti-social, deviant behaviors. Examples- of these frustrations and agression may be loss of money, the loss of a job or failure in love, child abuse, robbery or to extremes, murder.

Freudian theorists linked deviance. to defects of the super ego or conscience. Other psychological explanations attribute people with weak egos to be unable to control their impulses, defer gratification, or adhere to planned, rational courses of action. Motivation, intelligence, stress, unconscious needs and personality traits are found to be contributing factors other theorists have associated with deviance.

These psychological explanations, however, are not very useful, because theories involving instincts and unconscious needs are extremely difficult to test empirically. Clear explanations based on frustration and agression or illness fail to differentiate the deviant from the non-deviant.

Sociological Theories of Deviance

The sociological theories of deviance look at the socio-cultural processes and organizational structures of society characterized by a breakdown or absence of social norms and values, as in the case of uprooted people. The Anomie theory, a structural-functional theory, focuses on value conflicts between culturally prescribed goals and socially approved ways of achieving them. This theory asserts that groups in power define acts of the weaker groups as deviant in order to exploit them.

Merton extended Durkheim's explanation of the anomie theory and suggests that deviance arises from the noncongruence between "a society's emphasis on attaining some goals and the institutionalized

means of achieving these goals. The poor, the teenagers, and the blue-collar workers are constantly informed through education and the media that material success is an important goal; but legitimate means for achieving it are most often not available. This, in effect, results in deviance - a strain between society's culture and its social structure, between culturally prescribed goals and the socially approved- ways of achieving them.

Merton identified five ways that individuals adopt to the goals of a culture. Conformity to both goals and means is considered as non-deviant. The other four methods of adaptation are all forms of deviant behavior.

Innovation is a second mode of adaptation and innovators, in this case, accept social goals and reject the prescribed means of achieving them. An example of this mode is when students who desire to get good grades adhere to values, but if they cheat, they violate

a norm.

The third mode of adaptation is referred to as ritualism. In this case, the ritualists follow prescribed rules rigidly without regard for the ends for which they are designed: An example of this is the office manager who uses most of his time checking the arrival and departure of his employees and doesn't make personal phone calls during office hours is considered a ritualist. Ritualists adhere to traditions and will never take chances. This form of behavior is not generally considered a serious form of deviant behavior, though. Normally, people cling to accepted routines and institutionalized -norms to avoid dangers of frustrations that they perceive are inher- ent in the competition for major cultural goals.

The fourth mode of adaptation is retreatism which is considered by sociologists as more drastic behavior. Examples of retreatists are psychotics, vagabonds, alcoholics, and drug addicts. These people are truly aliens in the society and reject both the cultural goals and the institutional means. They are considered members of their society by virtue of living in the same place. Retreatist deviants are regarded as a social liability.

The fifth mode of adaptation is rebellion. Rebels, such as members of revolutionary movements that seek to change the whole social order, withdraw their allegiance to a society they feel is unjust and attempt to bring into being a new, greatly mofidied and responsive social structure. Social movements, such as gay rights and women's

SOCIAL PROBLEMS AND ISSUES IN THE PHILIPPINES

liberation movements, fall short of what Merton considered rebellion since these activities do not totally reject most societal goals. These movements tend to advocate substituting new values in certain parts of society.

Merton's theory has been widely criticized on a number or various grounds (Schur, 1979; Thio, 1978). Critic's argue that it. erroneously assumes that a single system of "cultural goals" is shared by the entire society. It fails to explain clearly why some individuals choose one response while others choose a different one. Another weakness is that certain types of deviance, e.g., rape and the behavior of hippies of the late 1960's who reject established institutions and values and seek spontaneity by wearing unconventional costumes ornamented with flowers, heads and bells, do not fall under any of his five modes of adaptation.

The Conflict Theory

The conflict theorists are the critics of the functionalist theory and contend that most societies contain many groups that have different, most often, opposing values and that the strongest groups in a society have the power to define the values of weaker groups as deviant. Conflict theorists underscore the represssion of the weak by the powerful, the exploitation of the poor by strong interest groups, and the powerful and influential, who use legal means and other agencies to approve the interests and activities of the lower socio- and minorities in a society. The powerful groups economic groups exploit those with less power and, consequently, produce inequality and institutionalized violence. These influence both the creation of deviance and the response to it. Conflict theorists contend that the legal authorities are controlled by the rich and powerful. They perceive their theory as a call for political action to raise a revolutionary consciousness and end the oppression of the powerless by the powerful.

The Cultural Transmission Theory

The Cultural Transmission Theory states that where deviance is part of the sub-culture's pattern, it is transmitted to the newcomers of a particular place through socialization. When the tradition of deviance exists in a sub-culture, Shaw and Mckay (1929) noted that the norms of that sub-culture are passed on to the peer group, and to the gang, during interaction with newcomers. Consequently, they, too, become deviant, not violating norms but conforming to the norms of the sub-culture. Some sociologists infer that the idea is that deviance is transmitted culturally through learning and socialization not only from gangs or peer groups but also to other agents of socialization; e.g, parents, teachers, community leaders and business colleagues.

The Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory implies that deviant and conforming behaviors of the individual are determined by the consequences-reward or punishment-that come after. This behavior is acquired through direct conditioning, by imitation or by modeling the behavior of others. This is known as operant or instrumental conditioning. A behavior is strengthened by rewards (positive reinforcement) or by avoidance of punishment (negative reinforcement) and weakened by aversive stimuli or loss of rewards. Akors, et al. (1979), assert that the acquisition and persistance of either deviant or conforming behavior are a function of what particular behaviors have been rewarded or punished. This is known as differential reinforcement when the norms and attitudes people learn from others, especially from peers and from members of the family, are also influential.

The Labeling Theory

The labeling theory of deviance is concerned primarily with how certain behaviors are labeled "deviant" and how such a label greatly influences a person's behavior.

Edwin Lemert (1951), a labeling theorist, identified two types of deviance - primary and secondary. The primary deviance involves behavior that violates social norms but is transitory and sporadic. Persons who are involved in primary deviance consists of initial deviant behaviors by people around them but not regarded by the public as deviant.. Examples are isolated cases of homosexual contact by persons with heterosexual past and cheating. Secondary deviance involves habitual violation of norms by persons who not only consider themselves but also are labeled as such by others. Labeling or public identification becomes a notorious identity of the labeled individual. Once an individual is labeled a cheat, a criminal, a prostitute, a liar, or crazy, he often tends too promote deviance. This leads others to perceive that person in terms of that deviant status, and may overlook his other qualities. Even his career options may become difficult and the choice is but to line up to the label and act according to his

status.

The labeling syndrome, to a great extent, results in lowering the status of persons labeled. In a study conducted on legal stigma by Schwartz and Skolnick in Social Problems, the findings were:

1. There is a continued "status degradation" of individuals who have been convicted even when the prison term has been fully served.

2. Even individuals who have been alledgedly accused of a crime but later on acquitted after a due process, have almost the same problem of looking for a job as one who has found guilty and

convicted.

Cultures and subcultures differ in their definitions of what a deviant is. However, they have prescribed rules and expectations whose violations evoke disapproval anger and to a certain extent indignation. Deviant behavior is a type of behavior that departs from social norms that society disapproved.

Deviance is behavior that is basically a violation of certain types of group norms that represents some form of undesirable difference from the point of view of the majority.

1. The deviant individual is regarded as a freak

2. The deviant is "sinful", Concept like this centers on the terms: sinner, heretic and apostate. A sinner is one who violates the expected and proper ways of thinking and acting. The individual is believed to violate doctrines and norms which he has accepted but simply does not live up to. A heretic, unlike the sinner, rejects some or all the "proper" ways of thinking and acting. An apostate not only rejects - the dogma and faith but also accepts an entirely different set of principles, norms, and traditions. This kind of deviant behavior is thought to be more threatening to the maintenance of social solidarity than the behavior of sinners or heretics. The apostate may be traitors or deserters.

3. The deviant is a boat-rocker. This is ideologically conservative

Dimensions of Social Problems since it holds the continuance of the existing social order to be in the interests of the entire group. Deviance is seen as behavior that interferes with the smooth running of the group or institution or the society as a whole, a threat not only to rock the boat to overturn it completely.

4. The deviant is sick. He is seen as being partly or completely irrational and not responsible for his behavior,

5. The deviant is alienated. This view sees modern man as impotent in a world in which decisions are made by others, and people, like puppets become isolated from the values and norms of their society.

The deviant is a human being. In a small community where everybody knows everbody else, the deviants are recognized first as productive members of society and only secondary as deviants; e.g., as high school teacher who is lesbian, a prominent lawyer who is homosexual, or an accomplished doctor of medicine who sometimes performs abortion. People in the community tolerate them or even protect them.

Deviance is a behavior that is opposed to normal behavior. It is some form of undesirable difference. Human beings are a little deviant in one way or another, perhaps because in lack of us, there is a leit of the sinner, the boat-rocker, the sick, and the alienated. The extent and the degree of disapproval in a particular situation is dependent on the nature of the circumstance and the community's degree of tolerance of the behavior the individual exhibits. Deviation from norms are often conditioned by the changing social institutions and to a great extent by conflicts of value judgment. Deviations grow out as a result of the rules and norms prescribed by a certain society that are approved and encouraged.

Causes of Social Deviation

One apparently cause of social deviation is social disintegration which has been presented and discussed in this chapter. Other causes of deviation are weakening of social control, labeling, and biological and psychological factors.

Weakening of social control. Lack of parental guidance and control over children usually lead them to engage in some kind of activities that are in contrary to accepted norm of the group. Since these children may not be socialized fully went, they might find difficulties in adjusting to the norms of the larger group in the society. Broken homes usually drive children away from the family and push them to look for the group where they will find acceptance and security, these are the process conducive to the development of deviant behavior. The failure of organized institutions and society to make members conform to the accepted norm leads to the increase of cases of deviations. Socialization process is perceived as inadequate and the control mechanisms may be too weak. The sanctions and punishment developed by society to check on the cases of deviation have sometimes proven to be ineffective. These may be illustrated by the increase of criminal acts misdemeanor committed by persons in our society. Labeling. Labeling results in the lowering of the status of the individuals and because of this he may even resort to develop- ment and resentment. He might develop the tendency to accept the labeling and act according to his new status,

Sociological investigation on social problems reveal that:

1. 'There is a continuous "status degradation" of individuals who have been convicted even when the individual's "debt" has been paid. 2. Individuals who have been accused of a crime of doing something but later on acquitted have almost the same problems of finding a job as one who was finally connected by a competent court.

The program of rehabilitating the criminals take greater initiative in finding appropriate ways on how criminals who have served their punishment in prison for the crime they have committed can be integrated and, accepted in our society.

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Biological and psychological factors. It may be observed that some deviants become deviants not by their own choice but because of their inability to conform with accepted desired behavior. Sigmund Freud formulated a comprehensive theory of personality and explained is its development. His theory is that socialization, as a process, characterized by the internal struggle between the biological components and the social cultural environment of the individual. In his psychoanalytical theory of human personality and crime spoke of the Id ego and superego as major aspects of human personality. He viewed the human personality as a dynamic interaction of these three systems and the outside world: The Idys the biological component of the self which is the source of a number of drives and

It is unconscious, illogical and unintegrated. It is instinctive and center around the satisfying of basic food and sex, and is domi

nated by the "pleasure principle." The egos that component of the self that represents reason and sanity. The ego mediates between the ::. needs of the individual and world of reality and strives to delay ten- sions by way of waiting for a suitable environment to exist. The su- perego is the carrier of the ideals, customs, traditions, and mores of a society. Its principal function is to criticize the ego.

The manner in which these three components of the human self interact with the outside world illustrates how the individual personality is formed. Imbalance and disharmony of the said components may produce neurotic individuals. (Deviant behavior results from the conflicts between the Id and the ego, or between the Id and the superego (Horton and Hunt, 1980). Mental deficiency is sometimes a factor to consider in the development of deviant behavior.

In the study of deviant behavior, one has to consider that not all deviants are society's liability. Some sociologists include the genius and exceptionally talented individuals like Einstein, Edison, Da Vince and Mozart as deviants since they also deviate the "normal", but they move further away from the accepted behavior to achieve their goals. It may be inferred that the presence of deviation in a particular society does not constitute social disorganization. Deviance in a limited number and under certain circumstances may also contribute importance to the vitality and efficiency of a society.

Social Problems and Cultural Diveristy

A society is composed of an organized group of persons associated together for religious, benevolent, political, social, economic, scientific, patriotic and professional purposes. As an organized assembly of people, it is made up of a network of interconnected ⚫ groups and organizations which constitutes the social system. People constantly form and re-form groups, and great deal of social behavior takes place within and between groups (Robertson, 1977). Society is composed of diverse group of individuals of different interest. motivations and goals of life. It is a continuous struggle between the owners of the means of production (the exploiters) and the factory workers (the exploited). Society is divided into classes who disagree

and collide in the pursuit of their own personal and class interests. Diverse cultural patterns tend to bring about various behavioral norms that may be inconsistent with the prevailing accepted standard of a society, because of the divergent norms or persons with different cultural background and orientation may be a cause of conflict. Some mores and folkways of fundamental importance which are accepted without questions by a certain group may be functional for them and on the other hand, dysfunctional for others in the same society. These culture conflicts have both social and personal effects in the harmonious interactions and relationship of the members of the society. Normally, cultural conflict exists when society is diverse because of different racial, linguistic, socio-economic status and religious beliefs and may inevitably aggravates the difference and holistic among the groups.

The existing gap between the younger generation with that of the older generation may also contribute to the intensity of social and psychological conflict. The outlook in life of young and their practices do not jibe with the conventional norms that were embodied in the homes, schools and religious agencies because of the influence of modernization.

The cultural and behavioral characteristics of stable and unified society is a result of meaningful and sustained participation of its members setting aside cultural diversity.

Social Problems Vis-a-Vis Social Control

Society is highly structured system, of human organization composed of persons associated together living that normally furnishes protection, continuity, security and identity. Society evolves in various ways to make its members conform and behave according to the norms of the group. Social control is a process or a mechanism of making its members play their roles as expected to them. If the members of a sociery want to maintain order and stability in their social environment, the means of social control should be given paramount importance. It may be assumed that-if-members behave according to the patterns set by society, then all of its elements will certainly function smoothly and therefore, ensure society's stability and continuity. If there are no means of social control there will be chaos and disorganization, Society needs social control to maintain social equilibrium. Without social control, people will just follow their own desires at the expense of others. It is in this premise, that even in simple societies, social control is emphasized. One could not imagine an individual can cross the busy streets in Manila during rush hours without traffic lights or policeman or traffic aide or without the driv- ers observing traffic rules: Social control enjoins members of soci- ety to behave in a culturally defined mode of approved behavior.

Social Control

Human behavior is complicated and, most often, unpredictable. It is in this context that human behavior becomes interesting and challenging as a subject of study. "The human society is never a Utopia for it has certain imperfections that it must contend with." It Societies are to survive, they must have some control mechanisms to make people conform to social norms. The maintenance of order and stability promote equilibrium in spite of difficulties and problems confronting its members is made possible through the use of effective means of social control. These are available so that members would behave according to the standards of society. The means of social control should be given importance by the members to ensure society's continuity. If there are no means of social control, there will be chaos and disorganization and people will just follow their own desires at the expense of others.

E.A. Ross defined social control as "concerned with that domination which is intended and which fulfills a function in the life of the society." The definition suggests that social control is intentional. It is the process of making its members play their roles as expected of them in organized and well-defined goals and the available legitimate means to achieve them.

INFORMAL AND FORMAL MEANS OF SOCIAL CONTROL

1. Informal Social Control. The behavior of an individual is regulated and, to a certain extent, controlled by his own society. Basically, informal social control starts with the socialization process of the child and includes mores which are considered important and accepted without question. These embody the fundamental moral views of the group and folkways which are the traditional patterns of life common to a people. These mores and folkways are not written down but are perceived and made known to him and the social pressure to conform is strongly emphasized. In the socialization process, the child is made to understand the importance of obeying the rules that guide his behavior. "People are controlled mainly by being socialized so that they fill their roles in the expected way through habit and preference." (Horton and Hunt, 1980). In the family, the child is taught to respect and obey the parents and other elders and it is where he is exposed to the norms and standards of our society. The family, as the oldest and basic social institution, helps the child to. 'learn and assume different roles. When he learns to internalize the values and attitudes of the family, it would be easier for him to conform with the values and norms of a bigger society. The family, .. as an agent of socialization, greatly helps the child to understand better the norms of a bigger group and the desire for acceptance makes him conform to acceptable and shared behavior. Informal social control carries with it sanctions and punishment when one fails to follow the accepted behavior. Sanctions may take the forms of ridicule, disapproval, reprimand, criticism, denial of affection and in severe cases, ostracism. Hollnsteiner, ed., Society, Culture and the Filipino (1979), identifies some devices and different mechanisms employed to reinforce the system of social control, which, according to her, are the techniques in group interactions; e.g., pakikisama. A person is inclined to go along with the wishes of the group even when it conflicts with his value orientation in order to win social approval. Another mechanism is the curbing of anti-social attitudes by disallowing privacy or by ascribing undesirable statuses to deviants. She elaborated this as:

"The technique of levelling a person to his face is reinforced by the direct method of criticism known as gossip. Anything out of the ordinary becomes the subject of the week, especially in a small community. The winner in the cockfight who does not give the appropriate blowout is discussed disapprovingly, and the person knows it. The Manila family that refused to shelter indefinitely two provincial nephews seeking employment is a choice topic of conversation among the kindred and barrio mates. Through a system of intermediaries otherwise known as grapevine, the deviant is made painfully aware of this shortcomings in the group's eyes."

Socialization takes the form of social control on the internal level by way of transmitting values and norms to its new members and

Dimensions of Social Problems 23

is primarily characterized as unplanned and informal.

2. Formal social control. As society becomes more complex, there is a need for a formal mechanism instituted by legitimate authorities to promote order and discipline to control the behavior of its members, Formal social control involves organized systems of specialized agencies and institutions which set up laws, rules, codes, or standards of expected behavior and provides corresponding sanctions and penalties it its members do not follow them. These are enacted by formal organizations and administered by persons who legally occupy the positions in the said organizaiton. In the state, laws are enacted as control mechanisms and have for their basic areas of interest the individual and his relationships with other individuals and with society. These are enforced by the prosecutors, judges and the police. In the business community, the employers are the agents of social control and sactions may be made in the form of promotion, certificate of recognition or suspension or expulsion of the individual from the organization. In the ecclesiastical community, priests, pastors, ministers or rabbi are the agents of social control and sanctions may be made in the form of penance, excommunication or denial of religious services at death. In professional and civic organizations, awards and citations for exemplary services are given to deserving members. On the other hand, fines, temporary suspension of membership or expulsion from the organization of a member is meted out as a means of social control.

Various organized societies whether political, economic, social, cultural, military and ecclesiastical have some control mechanism as a means of social control to establish standards, and correct. undesirable deviations.

Social Problems Require Collective Action

Social problems exist in all societies and these societies experience social conditions that are recognized to be undesirable, causing human conditions and difficulty as a source of distress and unhappiness. A significant number of people perceive that there is a wide gap between the social ideas and social realities and so believe, the difference can be eliminated through collective action (Dresseer and Mc Willis, 1973).

Collective action came into being because of collective effort brought about by temporary groups which are not generally governed by established norms of the culture and composed of people who share same kind of belief which motivates them to prepare and implement such action. Some sociologists regard collective action to be highly emotional, spontaneous and sometimes irrational because it occur in situations of the stress. Some social scientists view that, collective action is not totally unstructured as one may observe a pattern of social relationship in a group. This is apparent in. demonstrations and rallies where organizational planning identifies the time, place, speakers and the person who will be responsible for the permit. In some cases, the participants are more or less oriented by a simple set of norms such as chanting and clapping of hands after every performance of the participant where social movement through collective action goes on. Those in authority can also take the initiative and initiate appropriate action by way of legislative measures. Public opinion, which is an expression of a number of persons on an issue of public importance that have national significance, can be expressed especially on social problems.

The media are molders of public opinion and educational channels and carriers of cultural patterns and behavior norms that can be a potent instrument in identifying and addressing the social problems affecting the community and, in effect, provide the social awakening of people and motivate them to institute collective action to attain a better quality of life.