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PLN3_Prelims Handouts part 1
Page 1
Compilation of notes related to urban and regional planning from various authors
For classroom use only
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Ekistics
The science of human settlements
Greek term meaning "settling down"
Coined by Constantinos A. Doxiadis, a Greek architect-engineer
Human Settlement
Goal: human settlement should satisfy "Man"
Must contain the following:
The content: Man, alone or in societies
The container, or the physical settlement, which consists of both natural and man-made elements
Human Settlements are no longer satisfactory for their inhabitants
True everywhere in the world, more so in underdeveloped countries
Economical realities:
Many inhabitants do not have the means to satisfy their needs
Homelessness and low-quality housing
Social realities:
People appear lost in big cities
People appear abandoned by progress in small towns and villages
Political realities:
Creation of new types of societies and peoples without corresponding political institutions
Examples: marginalized people, displaced people, poor, refugees
Technical realities:
Most settlements lack necessary facilities
Inadequate facilities, lack of maintenance, dilapidation, antiquation, absence
Aesthetic realities:
Ugliness of present human settlements
Some areas of Human Settlement exist in which conditions appear satisfactory:
Cities of the past that have refused to grow despite technology (e.g., Venice)
Cities inhabited by small high-income groups (e.g., Monte Carlo, Brunei, Beverly Hills)
Settlements that have survived unaltered from old times
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Some areas of Human Settlement appear to be satisfactory
We do not realize how bad the situation is
We have become accustomed to chaos
According to Doxiadis, critical conditions common to all cities are as follows:
There is an unprecedented increase in population due to improved living conditions, accompanied by a migration to urban settlements. The result is growth of urban settlements at a tremendous scale.
We experience multiple impacts of machines in our lives.
There is a gradual socialization in the patterns of living, which allows the whole population to participate more and move in the city, its facilities and resources.
In the modern city, growth and change over time is a dominant feature, which must take precedence in all planning considerations.
The two basic elements of Human Settlements:
The content
The container
Doxiadis defined five (5) elements of human settlements or ekistic elements, which are essential for an inclusive approach to human settlements.
Man. In the center stands man, the individual human being.
He is unhappy in his settlements today and is growing more so as time passes, even if he is not always conscious of the source of his unhappiness.
He is no longer in proper relation or in balance with the other elements of the settlement.
Biological needs (space, air, temperature, etc.)
Sensation and perception (the five senses)
Emotional needs (human relations, security, beauty, etc.)
Moral values
Society deals with people and their interaction with population trends, group behavior, social customs, occupation, income, and government. Of increasing importance is the preservation of values inherent in small communities after they have been absorbed by larger settlements.
Man's relationship with other men. His interaction with his co-human being.
Population composition and density
Social stratification
Cultural patterns
Page 5
Man has made the car his priority rather than the house
Man's desire to traveling rather than arriving. Escapist notion.
Man's dissatisfaction with his permanent habitat and his desire to escape to a new type of surrounding
Man turns into a semi-nomad who finds greater happiness and comfort in his car rather than his home.
The Effects of New Settlements
An increase in the number of a settlement which is not developing in accordance with the needs of a community leads to disintegration
Despite the spread of new settlements into the countryside, the recurring problems of existing settlements will happen
Decaying and Abandoned Settlements
The physical shells of our settlements clearly demonstrate the continuous disintegration from which they are suffering.
Millions of settlements are left behind by evolution
Millions of settlements' physical wealth is disintegrating
Physical wealth - facilities and amenities
New centers are created: transfer of wealth from one area to another.
The number of communities whose location and structure correspond to an economy of the past and which are now losing the vitality that once kept them intact and in good shape.
The expansion of the big urban areas, where residence, industry, transportation and many other factors are mixed together irrationally so that no part of the settlement can function properly and assume its appropriate shape and form.
The centers of our cities become over congested, overbuilt.
Traffic engineers cut the community into many different pieces without creating a new community worthy of the old textures.
New communities are worst off than the old.
The Effects of an Expanding Settlement
By allowing our settlements to expand the way they do, we spoil values of greater importance.
We spoil nature: the container of life
First, we take more and more valuable land and build on it haphazardly, thus upsetting the balance of nature which exists.
Second
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The increase in recent years has been outstanding
People
Building
Machines
Time: the need for new innovations, before restricted only to the well-to-do, has accelerated with the passage of time.
Failure to Respond
In the past, changes were slow in taking place. This is why Man was able to follow them without difficulty, adjusting himself, his thoughts, his creations and his settlements to the changes.
During the latest phase of development, however, the rate of change has increased so much that Man has been unable to follow it, adjust himself and produce accordingly.
Man has looked ahead a number of years, foreseeing man‟s needs up to the end his life and the next generation.
Today‟s changes occur in one or two years. Man is caught unprepared for these changes.
Population growth and economic and social evolution speeded up
Urban wealth did not adjust to the increasing population
The gap between development as a whole and the quantity of material urban wealth has increased
The gap between supply and demand is increasing
In the past, man has only to achieve a synthesis of people, building and nature. Today machines have become a part of man‟s life.
In the past, all that man can hope for was a good house in a good neighborhood. Today a good house in a good neighborhood is no longer a constant value and with the changing urban organism, the neighborhood may quickly turn into a slum.
Even if it does not turn into a slum: Long distances of travel to various places
Distant schools
Impractical to attend cultural affairs at distant locations
Human Settlements have lagged behind in the quantity of urban foods offered to people.
Quality of Human Settlements
What is the quality of Human Settlements? How do
Page 7: Can Confusion be Overcome?
Three possible assumptions regarding confusion:
The situation is inevitable
The situation is not inevitable, it is transitional
The situation is not inevitable, it is up to the people to change it
Coordination is necessary
Experts involved in Human Settlements:
Architect
Planner
Engineer
Administrator
Economist
Social scientists
Without coordination, the system moves nowhere
Only 30% of the total population has proper community facilities
The two basic professions that can contribute to the solution of human settlements:
Economists
Overall economic development of human settlements
30-40% of total capital investment goes into urban areas in developed economies
Investment may exceed 90% in certain underdeveloped countries
Engineers
Considered auxiliary to architects
Must serve as traffic engineers but create more traffic
Those responsible for the overall effort within Human Settlement:
City officials and mayors
Confined within administrative city limits
New authorities have taken over functions previously responsible by traditional authorities
Page 7: The Seers: Pioneer Thinkers in urban planning from 1880-1945
Historical Background
Two groups of thinkers: Anglo-American Group and Continental European Group
Different backgrounds
In England and Wales, cities began to spread
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Industrialization and movement from the countryside led to rapid city growth in Europe
This happened several decades later than in Britain (1840-1900)
Continental cities did not spread out as much as British cities
Public transport services developed, allowing people to live close to their work
High apartment blocks were built along streets, enclosing big internal spaces
Slum areas were created, but different from English slums
Poor people in England lived in small houses, while Europeans lived in small apartments
Densities in European slums were higher than in English slums
Continental Europeans preferred high-density apartment living within the city
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Ebenezer Howard was the most influential urban planning thinker
His book "Garden City of Tomorrow" influenced the garden cities or new towns movement in Britain
Historical background
Howard traveled to the United States during its period of rapid urban growth
Industrialists had already started new communities in association with large factories
Examples of such settlements in Britain: New Lanark, Saltaire, Bournville, Port Sunlight
Howard's ideas
Decentralize industry from the city
Build new towns around decentralized plants
Combine working and living in a healthy environment
Propagate the concept of garden cities
Influences of Howard
Edward Gibbon Wakefield advocated planned movement of population
James Silk Buckingham developed the idea of a model city
Alfred Marshall invented the idea of the new town as a solution to urban problems
The Three Magnets
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Howard was influential in starting two garden cities: LETCHWORTH and WELWYN GARDEN CITY
Howard's ideas were developed by his followers, including Sir Frederick Osborn
THE NEIGHBORHOOD UNIT
Howard's theoretical diagram divided towns into wards of 5,000 people
NEIGHBORHOOD UNIT idea: certain services should be provided within walking distance for small communities
RAYMOND UNWIN and BARRY PARKER
Famous works: Letchworth, The Hampstead Garden Suburb, Wythenshawe
They developed modifications of the original Ebenezer Howard idea
Published influential pamphlet "Nothing Gained by Overcrowding!"
Principle of generous green belts and building parkways
Adaptation of inter-urban railway as motor age
CLARENCE PERRY and CLARENCE STEIN & H. ALKER TRIP
New York Regional Plan
Clarence Perry developed the neighborhood unit idea
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Christopher Alexander's "A City is Not a Tree"
Suggested that different people have varied needs for local services
Clarence Stein
Developed his own version of the garden city
Included key components of modernist city planning
H. Alker Tripp
Published "Town Planning and Traffic"
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The decentralization of hundreds of thousands of people from overcrowded giant cities and their re-establishment in greater series of new planned communities (concept from Howard)
The method was essentially Geddes‟s survey of the area as it was
PATRICK GEDDES
Scots biologist; taught at University of Dundee
„Human Ecology‟- the relationship between man and his environment. – led to a systematic study of the forces that were shaping growth and change in modern cities, which culminated in his masterpiece “Cities in Evolution” (a book published in 1915)
His contribution to planning was to base it firmly on the study of reality: The close analysis of settlement patterns and local economic environment. He gave planning a logical structure where human geography was to provide the basis of planning:
survey of the region
its character and trends
analysis of the survey
actual plan
He was associated with French sociologist P.G.F. le Play. They stressed the intimate and subtle relationship between human settlement and the land through the nature of local economy.
PLACE-WORK-FOLK
Le Play‟s famous triad- was the fundamental study of men living and on their land.
Suburban decentralization was then causing cities to spread widely; in addition certain basic locational factors had already caused a marked concentration of urban development in certain regions (West Midlands, Lancashire, Central Scotland in Britain, or the Ruhr Coalfield in Germany). In these regions, suburban growth was causing a tendency for the towns to coalesce into giant urban agglomerations or conurbations.
Under the pressure of economic and social forces, town planning must be subsumed under town and country planning, or planning of whole urban regions encompassing a number of town and the surrounding spheres of influence.
Lewis Mumford, Geddes‟s American follower wrote “The Culture of Cities” (became almost the Bible of the regional planning movement
Page 14: Tony Garnier & Ernst May (1869-1948)
The garden city was exported to France
Best known expression occurred spontaneously
Tony Garnier designed an industrial city in Lyon in 1898
Similar to Howard's garden city
Self-contained new settlement with industries and housing
Ernst May developed satellite towns in Germany
Located outside the built-up limits
Separated from the city by a green belt
Used functional style of architecture and low-rise apartment blocks
Charles Edouard Jeanneret (Le Corbusier) (1877-1965)
Swiss-born architect who adopted the pseudonym Le Corbusier
One of the creators of the modern movement in architecture
Outstanding contribution as an urban planner
Notable projects: Unite d'Habitation and Chandigarh
Wrote "The City of Tomorrow" (1922) and "The Radiant City"
Le Corbusier's propositions:
Traditional city became functionally obsolete due to size and congestion
Increasing strain on communications in the central business district
Congestion could be cured by increasing density
High densities in tall structures, but open ground space
Distribution of densities within the city
New urban form could accommodate efficient transportation system
Rail lines and segregated elevated motorways
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Corbusier's general influence in planning cities after WWII has been incalculable
Corbusier taught planners the importance of scale in analysis
Corbusier emphasized the importance of dense local concentrations of people to support a viable mass transportation system
Planning Theory
Planning is a prescriptive activity, aiming to propose ways to change the world
Planners and consumers need a standard of reference or a model of the planning process to evaluate its success or failure
Planning theory cannot ignore ideology and must include a theory of the society in which planning is institutionalized
Planning theory addresses definitional, substantive, and normative issues
What is planning?
Planning as a basic human activity
Planning as a rationale choice
Planning as control of future action
Planning as a special kind of problem solving
Planning is what planners do
Defining Planning
Planning is not a purely individual activity
Planning is not present-oriented
Planning cannot be routinized
Planning is a deliberately conceived strategy
Planning is not just imagining desirable futures, it requires implementation and power
The Planning Process Features
Rationality is a central feature of planning
Rationality involves evaluation, choice of goals, and adoption of popular values
Rationality is guided by standards of logic and axioms
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No guarantee that rational choices will be good choices
Use of standards of rationality ensures internal logical consistency
Rational analysis provides a framework to display decision maker's values and assessments
Alternatives can be ranked from best to worst
If rational analysis shows a superior option, it must be chosen
Aggregation of Choices
Difficult to make rational choices with different individuals or stakeholders with different values and interests
Final decision should reflect individual preferences
Process should be democratic with no dominant group or people with power
Planning decisions should be done through a political process
Political process blends values of individuals and group participants through organization, commitment, power, bargaining, cooperation, and conflict resolution
Political process is the vehicle by which most planning proposals are implemented
Model of the Planning Process
Problem Identification - planning begins with dissatisfaction with the status quo
Goal Articulation - translation of vague, incoherent, and general goals into operational objectives
Prediction and Projection - forecasting the outcome based on desired goals/objectives
Alternative Development - forms the range of options for the plan
Feasibility Analysis - asks if it can be done given known constraints and available resources
Evaluation - various evaluation methods used, efficiency is a common criteria
Implementation - strong political commitment necessary for successful implementation
The Application to Urban and Regional Planning
'Urban' planning refers to planning with a spatial or geographical component
'Physical' planning or regional planning is a special case of general planning
Urban planning aims to improve the existing pattern without planning
'Planning' as an Activity
Classic sequence taught to planning students: survey-analysis-plan
Goal Articulation
Prediction and Projection
Alternative Development
Feasibility Analysis
Implementation
Problem Identification
Evaluation
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The planner makes a survey, in which s/he collects all the relevant information about the development of their city or region
The survey collects data about the area's changes and development
The planner analyzes the collected data to project them into the future and understand how the area is changing and developing
The planner makes a plan based on the survey and analysis, aiming to control and harness the trends according to sound planning principles
The New Planning Sequence
Start with the formulation of goals and objectives for the development of the area concerned
Produce alternative projections or simulations of the region's state at various future dates, assuming the application of different policies
Compare and evaluate the alternatives against yardsticks derived from the goals and objectives to produce a recommended system of policy controls
Urban and Regional Planning
Urban and regional planning is spatial or physical and uses general planning methods to produce a physical design. It is oriented towards process rather than one-shot plans. Its subject matter is the part of geography concerned with urban and regional systems, but planning itself is a type of management for complex systems.
The Planning Typology
The Four (4) Kinds of Planning:
Traditional Planning
The planner prescribes both the goals of the plan and the means of attaining them
The principal objective is the orderly development of the urban environment
The plan's goals are derived from standards that measure desirable physical arrangements
Planners have generally advocated policies that fit the predispositions of the upper classes
Democratic Planning
Calls for a participatory process and the involvement of citizens
The planner acts as the ultimate authority in the formulation of plans
Differentiates between special interests and the public interest
The public chooses both ends and means, but the planner shapes the alternatives that will be considered
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3. Equity planning
Equity planning overlaps with democratic planning
Democratic planning emphasizes participatory process
Equity planning focuses on substance of programs
Recognizes conflicting social interests
Equity planner promotes wider range of choices for residents with few options
Equity and advocacy planning used interchangeably
Advocacy Planning
Preparation of plans or planning proposals by professional planners on behalf of organizations, interest groups, or communities
Alternative or opposition to plans prepared by official agency
Advocacy planning originated in the United States
Used in the context of "plural planning"
Advocacy planning helps bodies or interest groups whose interests are damaged or inadequately represented
Advocate planners act as proponents or advocates of the plans
May include critique of official proposals and alternative options
Advocate planners may act as consultants for groups that can't afford their services
Equity Planning
Differs from traditional planning
Does not require justification in the general public interest
Equity planners favor redistributional goals
Equity planners have a responsibility to advance the interests of the poor and racial or ethnic majorities
4. Incremental Planning
Policy makers make decisions by weighing the advantages of limited alternatives
Move ahead through successive approximations or "increments"
Incrementalism is not considered planning
Partisan mutual adjustment and adherence to procedural rules lead to rational decision making
Incrementalism produces the fruits of planning in its results
Four Types of Political Theory
Technocratic theory and traditional planning
Page 19: Technocratic Thinking
Technocratic thinking is a product of the industrial era
Technocrats desire to restore the order of the pre-industrial world
They accept modernization and welcome technology as the cure for societal ills
Technocratic theory is compatible with traditional planning ideas
Technocratic faith in progress through science and rationality
Assumption of traditional planning: social change must be initiated by the upper classes
Democratic Theory and Democratic Planning
All sovereignty emanates from the people
Democratic planning requires the planner to act as a delegate of the citizenry
Democratic policy makers face the short-term ignorance and selfishness of the citizenry
Difficulty in explaining why citizens should participate in public policy making
Criticism that the rule of the majority leads to social mediocrity and authoritarianism
Socialist Theory and Equity Planning
Socialism focuses on obtaining power and benefit for the poor within a democratic capitalist society
Conflict analysis of society and divergence of interests among social strata
Upper strata maintain control of social resources through their use of power
Belief in the potential of a democratic government
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Equity planning combines the belief in equality with government by the people
Liberal theory sees human beings as rational actors and emphasizes the diffusion of power within society
Incrementalism is based on maximizing individual freedom and ensuring present positions
Rationale of Town and Country Planning
Avoid unnecessary implementation expenditures
Enable rational reclassification of land uses
Serve as the basis for enacting a zoning ordinance
Introduce new trends in planning
Ensure sustainable development
Facilitate sourcing of funds for recommended programs and projects
Rationale of Town Planning
Respond to problems of inequality, deprivation, and squalor caused by free market forces
Deal with problems arising from the use of spaces occupied by a mobile population
Balance private needs and communal demands
Balance physical and cultural elements in human habitations
Direct and control the built environment in the interest of society as a whole
Three Evils of Development
Poverty
Inequality
Unemployment
Basic Features of Modern Urban and Regional Planning
Deliberate, self-conscious activity involving trained individuals
Goals, objectives, and means are determined
Major alternatives and recommendations are not laid out by planners themselves
Specialized tools are employed
Results are discernible 5 to 20 years after the decision has been made
Page 21: CATEGORIES AND CONCEPTS OF PLANNING
Physical planning
Concerned with spatial qualities and relationships of development
Economic planning
Facilitates the working of the market
Allocative planning
Regulatory planning
Innovative planning
Development planning
Indicative planning
Lays down general guidelines; advisory in nature
Imperative planning
Otherwise called command planning, involves specific directives
Normative planning
Otherwise called utopian planning
Behavioral planning
Otherwise called reformist planning
Proposes piece-meal "disjointed incrementalist" approach to societal change
Page 21: The Scope & Nature of Town Planning
Introduction
Town planning is often seen as imposing unnecessary restrictions on the property market and individual freedom
Planning policy affects everyone in their daily lives
Framework within which the market can operate
Questions about objectives and administration of planning
Importance of social aspects of planning
Consideration of physical realities and practicalities of urban land use and development
Constructive role of town planners in enabling development and urban renewal
Occasionally making urban social problems better rather than worse
"Believing in planning" - slogan of Royal Town planning in the 1990s
Page 21: What Is Town Planning?
Town planning is the art and science of ordering land uses and siting buildings and communication routes
Objective is to secure the maximum level of economy, convenience, and beauty
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Much of the planner's work involves dealing with already developed older sites
Objective is to incorporate existing buildings into the proposed new scheme
Planner needs to be flexible in applying planning standards when negotiating with the developer
Town planning from the developer's perspective is related to planning law and site development details
Development plans cover all types and aspects of land use and development in rural and urban areas
City development plans determine which sites can be built
Town planners consider the wider context and various aspects when deciding on the merits of a scheme
Consider social, economic, environmental, and political aspects
Client is society
Details of site layout are often more important to town planners than city-wide implications
Law of Planning in UK: The Town & Planning Act 1990 & Planning Compensation Act 1991
Development plans include policies for land use and development, as well as broader social, economic, and environmental trends
Developing community relations and understanding public participation and consultation are important aspects of good town planning
Town planning is influenced by architecture, civil engineering, surveying, and estate management
Concerned with "ordering the land uses" in a logical and scientific manner
The creation of logically planned cities can become an end in itself
The role of the planner
Traditional role seen as similar to that of a referee or umpire
Set out the pitch, resolve conflicts, enforce group rules
Ensure towns and cities develop logically and conveniently with zoning
Provide framework for road network and infrastructural services
Ensure space for non-profit social uses
Planners saw themselves as powerful technocrats
Offer society answers to problems based on advanced knowledge of town planning
"White heat of technology" approach to planning ignored the variety and untidiness of existence
Page 23:
Economic Planner
Economic planning seen as essential by Labour government
Town planning is an aspect of economic planning
Planners analyze physical, economic, and social factors in creating land use plans
Environmental Watchdog
Green movement concerned about natural environment and depletion of resources
Prince Charles concerned about civic design and modern architecture
Planners consider physical, economic, and social factors in creating statutory plans
Social Engineer
Planners seek to influence behavior through design and planning
Criticized for only achieving superficial change
Ideal planning system involves setting policies and goals for long-term change
Corporate Manager
Planners coordinate with a generalized overview of urban system
In private sector, planners coordinate specialist experts
In Australia, stronger link between town planning and landscape architecture
In eastern Europe, planners have traditional socialist role as decision makers and city managers
The Location of Industry
Location of industry determines internal structures of regions
Factors of production include land, labor, capital, enterprise, market factor, government policies, and behavioral factors
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Two Main Approaches to the Study of Factors of Industrial Location
Theoretical Approach
Empirical Approach
Considerations for Achieving Optimum Locations for Firms
Wide range of industries
Wide variety of firms
Theory of the Firm
Location decisions aim to minimize transport cost
Factors considered in location decisions include proximity to people, business, supplies, and transport
Three Approaches to Industrial Location Theory
Least Cost Approach
Market Area Analysis
Profit Maximization Approach
Factors Influencing Industrial Location
Page 25:
Labor cost
Savings in labor cost per unit of output can attract a firm to a location other than least transport cost
Savings in labor cost per unit of output must be greater than the extra transport cost per unit involved
Agglomerative and deglomerative factors
Local factors that determine the degree of dispersion within the general framework
Economies of Agglomeration
Savings in unit costs that may accrue to individual firms when a large enough number of them locate in one city
Localization economies: savings resulting from the agglomeration of firms in the same industry
Presence of highly specialized suppliers
Availability of a large pool of specialized, skilled labor
Diseconomies of Agglomeration
Concentration of population or economic activity in one place raises the real cost of production or reduces the real standard of living
Examples: air pollution and crime
Air pollution raises production costs and cleaning health costs
Higher crime rates impose increased security and insurance costs
Criticisms
Model assumes perfect competition with all firms having access to unlimited demand
Underemphasis of the output or demand side
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Market Area Analysis – A. Losch (1954)
Optimum location is the place of maximum profits
Market as a major location determinant
Criticisms
No spatial variations in the distribution of factor inputs
Uniform population densities
Overemphasis on the output side (market demand)
Profit Maximization Approach
Optimum location is the one which yields the greatest profit
Problems
Page 27: Types of Locational Orientation of Industries
Transport-cost Oriented
High-bulk-to-value ratio, hence transport inputs relatively important
Examples: Ore refining, steel, fruit and vegetable canning
Materials-oriented
Weight-, perishability-, losing process
Close to materials sources
Examples: Ore refining, steel, fruit and vegetable canning
Market-oriented
Weight-, perishability-, or fragility-gaining process
Close to market
Examples: Brewing, Baking, automobile assembly
Production-cost-oriented
Low bulk-to-value ratio, hence transport inputs relatively unimportant
Examples: Labor-oriented, Power-oriented, Amenity-oriented
Agglomeration-oriented
Economies of localization
Need for specialized ancillary services and labor
Examples: Apparel manufacturing, broadcasting
Location Factors in the Future:
The growth of light industry may result in a decline in the importance of proximity to markets and supplies.
Improvements in transport and communications are likely to make movement over larger distances more acceptable, with the emphasis changing from „how far‟ to „how long‟.
The capital intensive nature of new industry may also diminish the power of attraction of the labor factor.
With increased automation and rationalization and more space intensive processes, sites and premises are likely to become of increasing importance.
For the quaternary industry and office employment freed by new developments in telecommunications, the environmental advantages of new locations may outweigh the environmental consequences of congested conurbations.
Page 28: Central Place Theory
A central place is a settlement providing services
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Problems of actual ranking of central places:
Actual identification which may be confused by the problem of sprawl
Growth Pole Theory:
The core idea is that economic development takes place around a specific pole
Expansion of key industry leads to expansion of output, employment, investments, technologies, and industrial sectors
Transportation, especially transport terminals, play a significant role
Dependence on transportation strengthens the relationship
Possibility of secondary growth pole emerging
Difference Between Growth Pole and Growth Center/Point:
Growth Pole occurs in economic space
Growth Center/Point refers to spatial location
Basic Concepts of Growth Pole Theory:
Concepts of leading industries and propulsive firms
Concept of polarization
Page 30:
Limitations on Polarization:
Leading industry itself may decline
Diseconomies of scale may outweigh agglomeration benefits
Poor sector versus high profit in urban areas which is not enough
Rising cost of public service, congestion, noise, air pollution
Rising factor prices, wages, site
Longer journey to work
Is the concept of polarization strong today as it once was?
Companies today are multi-product, multi-plant, spread oriented with external economies of concentration less important
Valid for future structures
Concept of Spread Effect:
The dynamic propulsive qualities of the growth pole radiate outwards into the surrounding space
Trickling down or spread effects are attractive to regional planners as a policy tool
Uses of Growth
Page 32
Sector Theory - Homer Hoyt (1939)
Housing areas in a city develop in sectors along the lines of communication
High quality areas run along roads and reflect higher ground
Industrial sectors develop along canals and railways, away from high quality housing
High status residential area spreads out along the lines of the sector by the addition of new belts of housing beyond the outer arc of the city
Contrasts in land use are perpetuated as the city grows
Alternative to Burgess' concentric model
Based on residential rent patterns in the USA
Multiple Nuclei Theory - Chauncy D. Harris, Edward L. Ullman (1945)
Towns and cities grow about many nuclei rather than around a simple CBD
Distinctive land-use zones develop because some activities repel each other
High-quality housing does not generally arise next to industrial areas
New industrial areas develop in suburban locations
Outlying business districts may develop for the same reason
Layout of the model is generally standard, but the location of the various sectors is infinitely variable
Page 33
Urban Realms Theory – James E. Vance, Jr. (1964)
Each realm is a separate economic, social and political entity
Linked together to form a larger metro framework
Includes independent suburban downtowns as their foci
Depends on the overall size of the metropolitan region, amount of economic activity in each urban realm, topography and major land features, and internal accessibility of each realm
Explains suburban growth and how certain functions can be moved to the suburbs
Page 34
Urban Realms Theory (continued)
An urban realm is likely to become self-sufficient if the size of
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