What is angiotensin?; A substance that constricts blood vessels. What is atherosclerosis?; Deposits of plaque in arteries. What is bradycardia?; Abnormally slow heartbeat. What is diastolic pressure?; Blood pressure when the ventricle of the heart is relaxed. What is edema?; Accumulation of fluids in the tissues that causes them to swell. What is an electrocardiogram?; Recording of the electrical changes in the myocardium during a cardiac cycle. What is a semilunar valve?; A valve with crescent-shaped flaps. What is the myocardium?; Muscle tissue within the wall of the heart. What is a papillary muscle?; A small mound of muscle projecting into a ventricle of the heart. What is phlebitis?; Inflammation of a vein. What is arteriosclerosis?; Loss of elasticity and hardening of a blood vessel wall. What is a syncytium?; A mass of merging cells that act together. What is systolic pressure?; Blood pressure resulting from a single ventricular contraction. What is tachycardia?; Abnormally fast heartbeat. How many liters of blood does the heart pump through the body each day?; The heart pumps 7,000 liters of blood through the body each day. How many times does the heart contract in an average lifetime?; The heart contracts 2.5 billion times in an average lifetime. In what order does the heart pump blood through the blood vessels?; The heart pumps blood through the blood vessels in this order: arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins → back to heart. What makes up the cardiovascular system?; The heart and all blood vessels make up the cardiovascular system. What does the term 'Cardiovascular' refer to?; 'Cardiovascular' refers to both the heart and blood vessels. What is the primary function of the heart's pumping action?; The primary function of the heart's pumping action is to transport blood through blood vessels. What are the two circuits formed by blood vessels?; The two circuits formed by blood vessels are the Pulmonary Circuit and the Systemic Circuit. What is the function of the Pulmonary Circuit?; The Pulmonary Circuit transports oxygen-poor blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. In the lungs, blood picks up O₂ and drops off CO₂. What is the function of the Systemic Circuit?; The Systemic Circuit transports oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all body cells and back to the heart. Blood delivers nutrients to cells and removes wastes. What type of blood does the left side of the heart contain?; The left side of the heart contains oxygen-rich blood. What type of blood does the right side of the heart contain?; The right side of the heart contains oxygen-poor blood. Through which circuits does blood run?; Blood runs through two circuits: the pulmonary circuit to the lungs and the systemic circuit to body cells. What is the heart?; The heart is a hollow, cone-shaped, muscular pump. Where is the heart located?; The heart is in the mediastinum of the thoracic cavity, superior to the diaphragm. How many chambers does the heart contain?; The heart contains 4 chambers. What are the upper chambers of the heart called?; The upper chambers of the heart are called atria. What are the lower chambers of the heart called?; The lower chambers of the heart are called ventricles. What is the function of the ventricles?; The ventricles are responsible for the pumping action of the heart. What is the average size of the heart?; The average size of the heart is 14 cm long and 9 cm wide. Where does the heart lie within the body?; The heart lies in the thoracic cavity. Where is the heart located in relation to the sternum?; The heart is located posterior to the sternum. Where is the heart located in relation to the lungs?; The heart is medial to the lungs. Where is the heart located in relation to the vertebral column?; The heart is anterior to the vertebral column. Where does the base of the heart lie?; The base of the heart lies beneath the 2nd rib. Where does the apex of the heart lie?; The apex of the heart lies at the 5th intercostal space. What is the sternum?; The sternum, also known as the breastbone, is a long flat bone located in the central part of the chest. It connects to the ribs via cartilage and forms the front of the rib cage, helping to protect the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels from physical trauma. Where is the base of the heart located?; The base of the heart is located at the top of the heart, and it is oriented upwards and towards the right shoulder. It lies at the level of the second rib. What is the apex of the heart?; The apex of the heart is the pointed end of the heart, which is directed downwards and to the left. It is located near the fifth intercostal space, about 9 centimeters from the midline. Where is the heart located in relation to the diaphragm?; The heart is located above the diaphragm, resting on the left side of the diaphragm. The diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity, which houses the heart and lungs, from the abdominal cavity. What is the pericardium?; The pericardium is the covering over the heart and large blood vessels. What is the fibrous pericardium?; The fibrous pericardium is the outer layer that surrounds the double-layered serous membrane. What is the parietal pericardium?; The parietal pericardium is the layer deep to the fibrous pericardium and is the outer layer of the serous membrane. What is the visceral pericardium?; The visceral pericardium is the inner layer of the serous membrane attached to the surface of the heart, also called the epicardium. What is the Epicardium?; The Epicardium is the outer layer of the heart wall, also called the visceral pericardium; it is a thin layer. What is the Myocardium?; The Myocardium is the middle layer of the heart wall, composed of cardiac muscle tissue; it is the thickest layer. What is the Endocardium?; The Endocardium is the inner layer of the heart wall that forms the inner lining of all heart chambers; it is a thin layer. What is the epicardium?; The epicardium, also known as the visceral pericardium, is a serous membrane of connective tissue covered with epithelium. It includes blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, and nerve fibers, and forms a protective outer covering while secreting serous fluid. What is the myocardium?; The myocardium is composed of cardiac muscle tissue separated by connective tissue and includes blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, and nerve fibers. Its primary function is to contract and pump blood from the heart chambers. What is the endocardium?; The endocardium is a membrane of epithelium and underlying connective tissue that includes blood vessels. It forms a protective inner lining of the chambers and valves of the heart. What are the four chambers of the heart?; The heart is divided into four chambers: two atria and two ventricles. What is the function of the atria?; Atria are thin-walled upper chambers that receive blood returning to the heart. What are auricles in the heart?; Auricles are flap-like projections from atria that allow atrial expansion. What is the function of the ventricles?; Ventricles are thick-walled lower chambers that pump blood into arteries. What is the function of the right atrium?; The right atrium receives blood returning from the systemic circuit (from the superior and inferior vena cavae and coronary sinus) and pumps blood to the right ventricle. What is the function of the right ventricle?; The right ventricle receives blood from the right atrium and pumps blood to the lungs. What is the function of the left atrium?; The left atrium receives blood from the pulmonary veins and pumps blood to the left ventricle. What is the function of the left ventricle?; The left ventricle receives blood from the left atrium and pumps blood to the systemic circuit. What is the function of the tricuspid valve?; Prevents blood from moving from the right ventricle into the right atrium during ventricular contraction. Where is the pulmonary valve located?; Entrance to pulmonary trunk. What does the pulmonary valve prevent?; Prevents blood from moving from the pulmonary trunk into the right ventricle during ventricular relaxation. What is the location of the mitral valve?; Left atrioventricular orifice. What is the function of the mitral valve?; Prevents blood from moving from the left ventricle into the left atrium during ventricular contraction. Where is the aortic valve located?; Entrance to aorta. What does the aortic valve prevent?; Prevents blood from moving from the aorta into the left ventricle during ventricular relaxation. What is the function of the aorta?; The aorta is the main artery that carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body. What role does the pulmonary trunk play in the cardiovascular system?; The pulmonary trunk carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs for oxygenation. What is the mitral valve?; The mitral valve, also known as the bicuspid valve, is located between the left atrium and left ventricle and prevents backflow of blood into the left atrium. Describe the function of the tricuspid valve.; The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and right ventricle and prevents backflow of blood into the right atrium. What is the interventricular septum?; The interventricular septum is a wall that separates the left and right ventricles of the heart. What is the role of the chordae tendineae?; The chordae tendineae are tendon-like cords that anchor the heart valves to the papillary muscles, preventing valve inversion during ventricular contraction. Where is the pulmonary valve located, and what is its function?; The pulmonary valve is located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk and prevents backflow of blood into the right ventricle. What is the function of the papillary muscles?; Papillary muscles are located in the ventricles of the heart and attach to the atrioventricular valves via the chordae tendineae to prevent valve prolapse during systole. What is the superior vena cava?; The superior vena cava is a large vein that carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the right atrium of the heart. What is the function of the inferior vena cava?; The inferior vena cava is a large vein that carries deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the right atrium of the heart. What is the tricuspid valve?; The tricuspid valve is a valve located between the right atrium and the right ventricle of the heart. It has three cusps that prevent backflow of blood from the ventricle to the atrium. What is the mitral (bicuspid) valve?; The mitral (bicuspid) valve is a valve located between the left atrium and the left ventricle of the heart. It has two cusps that prevent backflow of blood from the ventricle to the atrium. What is the aortic valve?; The aortic valve is a valve located between the left ventricle and the aorta. It prevents backflow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle. What is the pulmonary valve?; The pulmonary valve is a valve located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery. It prevents backflow of blood from the pulmonary artery into the right ventricle. What surrounds the origins of the pulmonary trunk and aorta, and orifices between atria and ventricles?; Rings of dense connective tissue. What provides attachments for heart valves and muscle fibers?; The rings of dense connective tissue in the skeleton of the heart. What prevents excess dilation of heart chambers during contraction?; The rings of dense connective tissue in the skeleton of the heart. What makes up the skeleton of the heart?; The rings of dense connective tissue and other fibrous masses in the interventricular septum. What is the function of the tricuspid valve?; The tricuspid valve prevents backflow of blood from the right ventricle to the right atrium during ventricular contraction. What is the role of pulmonary veins?; Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. What does the pulmonary trunk do?; The pulmonary trunk carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the pulmonary arteries, which lead to the lungs. What is the mitral (bicuspid) valve?; The mitral (bicuspid) valve prevents backflow of blood from the left ventricle to the left atrium during ventricular contraction. What is the function of the aorta?; The aorta carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the systemic circulation. What is the role of the superior vena cava?; The superior vena cava returns deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the right atrium of the heart. What does the right atrium do?; The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body through the superior and inferior vena cava. What is the function of pulmonary capillaries?; Pulmonary capillaries facilitate the exchange of gases between the blood and the alveoli in the lungs. What is the role of systemic capillaries?; Systemic capillaries facilitate the exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products between the blood and tissue cells. What is the function of the right ventricle?; The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary trunk and subsequently to the lungs. What is the role of the left ventricle?; The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta and subsequently to the systemic circulation. What are the coronary arteries?; The left and right coronary arteries supply blood to tissues of the heart. What are the first two branches of the aorta?; The coronary arteries are the first two branches of the aorta. What artery branches off the aorta to supply the right side of the heart?; Right coronary artery. Which artery branches off the right coronary artery to supply the ventricular walls?; Posterior interventricular artery. Which artery supplies the walls of the right atrium and right ventricle?; Marginal artery. What artery branches off the aorta to supply the left side of the heart?; Left coronary artery. Which artery branches off the left coronary artery and supplies the left atrium and left ventricle?; Circumflex artery. Which artery supplies the myocardial capillaries in the ventricular walls and branches off the left coronary artery?; Anterior interventricular artery. Where do the cardiac veins drain the deoxygenated blood from the myocardium?; Coronary sinus. Into which chamber of the heart does the coronary sinus empty the deoxygenated blood?; Right atrium. What is the function of the aorta?; The aorta is the main artery that carries blood from the heart to the rest of the body. Where do the pulmonary veins transport blood?; The pulmonary veins transport oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. What is the role of the right atrium?; The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body through the superior and inferior vena cava and pumps it into the right ventricle. What is the function of the left ventricle?; The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta and out to the rest of the body. What is the superior vena cava responsible for?; The superior vena cava returns deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the right atrium of the heart. What is the significance of the pulmonary trunk?; The pulmonary trunk is a major vessel that originates from the right ventricle and splits into the left and right pulmonary arteries, carrying deoxygenated blood to the lungs. What is the role of coronary arteries?; Coronary arteries supply oxygen-rich blood to the myocardium (heart muscle). Where is the apex of the heart located?; The apex of the heart is the pointed end at the bottom of the heart, directed downward, forward, and to the left. What is the function of the right ventricle?; The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary trunk and through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. What does the left auricle do?; The left auricle is a small, muscular pouch that increases the capacity of the left atrium and helps with the movement of blood into the left ventricle. What is the function of the great cardiac vein?; The great cardiac vein collects deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle and drains into the coronary sinus, which then leads to the right atrium. What is the role of the inferior vena cava?; The inferior vena cava returns deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the right atrium of the heart. What is the cardiac cycle?; The events of a heartbeat. How do the heart chambers function during the cardiac cycle?; The heart chambers function in a coordinated manner. What happens during atrial systole?; During atrial systole, the atria contract while the ventricles relax (ventricular diastole). What happens during ventricular systole?; During ventricular systole, the ventricles contract while the atria relax (atrial diastole). What is a Heart Transplant?; Replacement of most of a failing heart with a donor heart. What is a Left Ventricular Assist Device (LVAD)?; Mechanical half-heart, used in some cases temporarily, until donor heart is available. What is an Implantable Replacement Heart?; Titanium and plastic artificial heart, used in people that cannot have heart transplant, and do not have long to live. What is Stem Cell Technology in the context of cardiac treatment?; Cardiac muscle tissue can now be cultured from altered somatic cells or from stem cells. This may allow 'stem cell heart patches' in the future. What occurs during atrial systole and ventricular diastole in the cardiac cycle?; During atrial systole and ventricular diastole, the ventricles are relaxed, the A-V valves open and the semilunar valves close. About 70% of blood flows passively from atria into ventricles, and atrial systole pushes the remaining 30% of blood into the ventricles, causing ventricular pressure to increase. What happens during ventricular systole and atrial diastole?; During ventricular systole and atrial diastole, the A-V valves close, the chordae tendineae prevent the cusps of the valves from bulging too far backward into the atria. The atria relax, blood flows into the atria from venae cavae and pulmonary veins, the ventricular pressure increases and opens the semilunar valves, and blood flows into the pulmonary trunk and aorta. What role do the chordae tendineae play in the cardiac cycle?; The chordae tendineae prevent the cusps of the valves from bulging too far backward into the atria during ventricular systole. What is the significance of the A-V valves closing during ventricular systole?; The closing of the A-V valves during ventricular systole prevents backflow of blood into the atria when the ventricles contract. How does blood flow from the atria to the ventricles during atrial systole and ventricular diastole?; During atrial systole and ventricular diastole, about 70% of blood flows passively from the atria into the ventricles, and atrial systole pushes the remaining 30% of blood into the ventricles, causing an increase in ventricular pressure. What happens to the semilunar valves during ventricular systole?; During ventricular systole, the ventricular pressure increases and opens the semilunar valves, allowing blood to flow into the pulmonary trunk and aorta. What is the cause of the sounds heard during a heartbeat through a stethoscope?; The sounds are due to the closing of heart valves and vibrations associated with a sudden slowing of blood flow during contraction/relaxation of chambers. What is the 'lubb' sound in a heartbeat?; The 'lubb' sound is the first heart sound, occurring during ventricular systole and associated with the closing of the A-V valves. When does the 'dupp' sound occur in a heartbeat?; The 'dupp' sound is the second heart sound, occurring during ventricular diastole and associated with the closing of the pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves. What is a heart murmur?; A heart murmur is an abnormal heart sound derived from the incomplete closure of cusps of a valve. Where is the aortic area located for heart valve auscultation?; The aortic area is located in the second intercostal space at the right sternal border. Where is the pulmonary area located for heart valve auscultation?; The pulmonary area is located in the second intercostal space at the left sternal border. Where is the tricuspid area located for heart valve auscultation?; The tricuspid area is located at the lower left sternal border around the fourth intercostal space. Where is the mitral area located for heart valve auscultation?; The mitral area is located at the apex of the heart, around the fifth intercostal space at the midclavicular line. What is a functional syncytium?; A functional syncytium is a mass of merging cells that function as a unit. What are intercalated discs?; Intercalated discs are structures between cardiac muscle cells that contain gap junctions, allowing action potentials to spread through a network of cells. What is the atrial syncytium?; The atrial syncytium is a mass of merging cells in the atrial walls that function as a unit. What is the ventricular syncytium?; The ventricular syncytium is a mass of merging cells in the ventricular walls that function as a unit. What is the Cardiac Conduction System?; A group of clumps and strands of specialized cardiac muscle tissue, which initiates and distributes impulses throughout the myocardium. It coordinates the events of the cardiac cycle. What role does the SA node play in the cardiac conduction system?; The SA node initiates the electrical impulses that set the pace for the heart's rhythm. What is the function of the AV node in the cardiac conduction system?; The AV node delays the electrical impulse from the atria to the ventricles, allowing the atria to contract fully before the ventricles are stimulated. What are Purkinje fibers?; Purkinje fibers are specialized conductive fibers located within the walls of the ventricles that rapidly conduct electrical impulses to the ventricular myocardium. What is the function of the bundle branches in the cardiac conduction system?; The bundle branches conduct electrical impulses from the AV bundle to the Purkinje fibers throughout the ventricles. What is the role of the atrial syncytium in the cardiac conduction system?; The atrial syncytium allows for the coordinated contraction of the atria by enabling the spread of electrical impulses across the atrial myocardium. What is the role of the ventricular syncytium in the cardiac conduction system?; The ventricular syncytium allows for the coordinated contraction of the ventricles by enabling the spread of electrical impulses across the ventricular myocardium. What is the function of the SA (Sinoatrial) Node?; Pacemaker; initiates rhythmic contractions of the heart. What does the Internodal Atrial Muscle do?; Conducts impulses from SA node to atria. What is the role of Junctional Fibers?; Conduct impulses from SA node to AV node. What is the function of the AV (Atrioventricular) Node?; Conducts impulses to AV Bundle; delays impulse, so that atria finish contracting before ventricles contract. What does the AV (Atrioventricular) Bundle (of His) do?; Conducts impulses rapidly between SA node and bundle branches. What is the function of the Left and Right Bundle Branches?; Split off from AV bundle, conduct impulses to Purkinje fibers on both sides of heart. What do Purkinje Fibers do?; Large fibers that conduct impulses to ventricular myocardium. What is the SA node?; The SA node, or sinoatrial node, is the pacemaker of the heart that initiates the electrical impulses that determine the heart rate. What is the role of the AV node in cardiac conduction?; The AV node, or atrioventricular node, delays the electrical impulse from the SA node before it is passed to the ventricles, ensuring the atria have time to contract fully before the ventricles contract. What are Purkinje fibers?; Purkinje fibers are specialized conductive fibers located within the walls of the ventricles that rapidly transmit impulses from the AV node to the ventricular muscle cells, causing the ventricles to contract. What happens when Purkinje fibers stimulate ventricular muscle cells?; When Purkinje fibers stimulate ventricular muscle cells, the ventricles contract with a twisting motion due to the whorled network of muscle in their walls. What constitutes the major components of the cardiac conduction system?; The major components of the cardiac conduction system include the SA node, AV node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers. Electrocardiogram (ECG, EKG); A recording of electrical changes that occur in the myocardium during the cardiac cycle. Used to assess the heart's ability to conduct impulses. P wave; Atrial depolarization; occurs just prior to atrial contraction. QRS complex; Ventricular depolarization; occurs just prior to ventricular contraction. T wave; Ventricular repolarization; occurs just prior to ventricular relaxation. Atrial repolarization; Record is 'hidden' in the large QRS complex, since ventricular depolarization is a much larger event. What is an ECG?; An ECG, or electrocardiogram, is a graphical representation of the electrical activity of the heart over time. What does the P wave on an ECG represent?; The P wave represents the depolarization of the atria, which leads to their contraction. What is indicated by the QRS complex on an ECG?; The QRS complex indicates the depolarization of the ventricles, which leads to their contraction. What does the T wave on an ECG signify?; The T wave signifies the repolarization of the ventricles. What is the significance of the PR interval on an ECG?; The PR interval represents the time from the onset of atrial depolarization (P wave) to the onset of ventricular depolarization (QRS complex). What does the ST segment on an ECG represent?; The ST segment represents the period when the ventricles are depolarized and corresponds to the plateau phase of the ventricular action potential. What is the 'Cardiac Cycle'?; The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occur from the beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of the next. It includes phases of atrial systole, ventricular systole, and diastole. What is 'Atrial Systole'?; Atrial systole is the contraction of the atria that helps to fill the ventricles with blood. It occurs towards the end of the diastole phase. What happens during 'Ventricular Systole'?; During ventricular systole, the ventricles contract, increasing pressure within the ventricles and leading to the ejection of blood into the aorta and pulmonary arteries. What is 'Diastole'?; Diastole is the phase of the cardiac cycle when the heart relaxes and the chambers fill with blood. This phase includes atrial diastole and ventricular diastole. What does the 'Electrocardiogram (ECG)' measure?; The electrocardiogram (ECG) measures the electrical activity of the heart and is used to monitor the heart's rhythm and detect abnormalities. What is 'Ventricular Volume'?; Ventricular volume refers to the amount of blood within the ventricles at any given time during the cardiac cycle. It changes as the ventricles fill and eject blood. What are 'Heart Sounds' and what causes them?; Heart sounds are noises generated by the beating heart and the resultant flow of blood through it. These sounds are primarily caused by the closing of heart valves. What causes the 'First Heart Sound (S1)'?; The first heart sound (S1) is caused by the closing of the atrioventricular (AV) valves (mitral and tricuspid) at the beginning of ventricular systole. What causes the 'Second Heart Sound (S2)'?; The second heart sound (S2) is caused by the closing of the semilunar valves (aortic and pulmonary) at the beginning of ventricular diastole. What is 'Aortic Pressure'?; Aortic pressure is the pressure within the aorta, which fluctuates during the cardiac cycle as blood is ejected from the left ventricle and during relaxation. What is 'Ventricular Pressure'?; Ventricular pressure is the pressure within the ventricles of the heart. It rises during ventricular contraction (systole) and falls during ventricular relaxation (diastole). What node normally controls the heart rate?; The SA node normally controls the heart rate. Which types of fibers modify the heart rate in response to changing conditions?; Sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers modify the heart rate in response to changing conditions. What are some conditions that can affect heart rate?; Conditions that can affect heart rate include physical exercise, body temperature, fight-or-flight response, and the concentration of various ions such as K+ and Ca+2. How do parasympathetic impulses affect heart rate?; Parasympathetic impulses via vagus nerves decrease heart rate due to their influence on SA and AV nodes. How do sympathetic impulses affect heart rate?; Sympathetic impulses via accelerator nerves increase heart rate due to their influence on SA and AV nodes, and ventricular myocardium. What is the role of baroreceptor reflexes in regulating heart rate?; Baroreceptor reflexes arise from the cardiac control center in the medulla oblongata and balance the inhibitory and excitatory effects of parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers. What regulates autonomic impulses to the heart?; The cardiac control center regulates autonomic impulses to the heart. What is a baroreceptor?; A baroreceptor is a sensory receptor that responds to changes in pressure, typically within the cardiovascular system, such as blood pressure. What is the function of autonomic impulses in the baroreceptor reflex?; Autonomic impulses alter heart action by increasing or decreasing heart rate and strength of contractions in response to changes in blood pressure. What role does the medulla oblongata play in the baroreceptor reflex?; The medulla oblongata processes signals from baroreceptors and sends autonomic impulses to regulate heart action and blood pressure. What is the general reflex arc in the baroreceptor reflex?; The general reflex arc includes a receptor (baroreceptor), a sensory or afferent neuron, the central nervous system, a motor or efferent neuron, and an effector (such as the heart). Where are baroreceptors located in the cardiovascular system?; Baroreceptors are located in the carotid sinuses and the aorta. What are arrhythmias?; Altered heart rhythms; several types. What is fibrillation?; Uncoordinated, chaotic contraction of small areas of myocardium. Atrial fibrillation is not life-threatening; ventricular fibrillation is often fatal. What is tachycardia?; Abnormally fast heartbeat, >100 beats/min at rest. What is bradycardia?; Abnormally slow heartbeat, < 60 beats/min at rest. What is flutter?; Rapid, regular contraction of a heart chamber, 250-350 beats/min. What is a premature beat?; A beat that occurs before expected in the normal cardiac cycle; often originates from ectopic regions of the heart (other than SA node). What is an ectopic pacemaker?; Damage to the SA node may lead to the AV node taking over and acting as a secondary pacemaker; 40-60 beats/min, instead of 70-80. What is an artificial pacemaker?; A device used to treat disorders of the cardiac conduction system; implantable and battery-powered. What are arteries?; Arteries carry blood away from the ventricles of the heart. What do arterioles do?; Arterioles receive blood from the arteries and carry it to the capillaries. What is the function of capillaries?; Capillaries are the sites of exchange of substances between the blood and the body cells. What do venules do?; Venules receive blood from the capillaries and conduct it to veins. What is the role of veins?; Veins receive blood from venules and carry it back to the atria of the heart. What is the primary function of blood vessels in the cardiovascular system?; Blood vessels form a closed circuit, transporting blood from the heart to body cells (or lungs) and back to the heart. What is the function of the tunica intima in blood vessels?; The tunica intima is the innermost layer of a blood vessel, composed of endothelial cells that provide a smooth lining to minimize resistance to blood flow. What is the role of the tunica media in blood vessels?; The tunica media is the middle layer of a blood vessel, composed of smooth muscle and elastic fibers, which regulates the diameter of the vessel and thus controls blood pressure and flow. Describe the tunica externa in blood vessels.; The tunica externa is the outermost layer of a blood vessel, consisting of connective tissue that provides structural support and protection. What are arterioles and their function?; Arterioles are small branches of arteries that lead to capillaries and play a key role in regulating blood flow and pressure by constricting or dilating. What are venules and their function?; Venules are small vessels that collect blood from capillary beds and transport it to larger veins for return to the heart. What distinguishes veins from arteries in terms of structure?; Veins have thinner walls and larger lumens compared to arteries, and often contain valves to prevent backflow of blood. What is the function of valves in veins?; Valves in veins prevent the backflow of blood, ensuring it moves in one direction towards the heart. What is angiogenesis?; Formation of new blood vessels. What mainly controls angiogenesis?; Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF). Why is angiogenesis regulated in the body?; Because excess, deficient, or inappropriate blood vessel formation can cause common diseases. How does the body promote angiogenesis in response to a blocked coronary artery?; The body secretes VEGF in response to a blocked coronary artery. What is a potential treatment if the body's secretion of VEGF is insufficient?; VEGF may be able to be delivered in time-release capsules. How do tumors use VEGF?; Tumors secrete VEGF to nourish themselves. What are antiangiogenesis drugs used to treat?; Antiangiogenesis drugs are used to treat cancer and age-related macular degeneration. What is the characteristic of the walls of arteries?; Arteries have thick, strong walls that are thicker than the walls of veins. What is the tunica interna (intima)?; The tunica interna (intima) is the innermost layer of an artery. What is the tunica media composed of?; The tunica media is composed of smooth muscle and elastic tissue. What is the tunica externa (adventitia)?; The tunica externa (adventitia) is the outer layer of an artery, composed of connective tissue. What function do arteries serve in the circulatory system?; Arteries transport blood under high blood pressure. What do arteries give rise to?; Arteries give rise to smaller arterioles. What is the structural difference between arteries and arterioles?; Arterioles have thinner walls than arteries, though both have the same three layers or tunics. The walls of the middle and outer layers become thinner as arterioles become smaller. What can both arteries and arterioles undergo?; Both arteries and arterioles can undergo vasoconstriction and vasodilation. What are arterioles?; Arterioles are small blood vessels that branch out from arteries and lead to capillaries. They have walls containing a few muscle fibers. What type of muscle cells are found in the walls of arterioles?; Smooth muscle cells are found in the walls of arterioles. What is the function of precapillary sphincters?; Precapillary sphincters regulate blood flow into the capillaries. What is the endothelium?; The endothelium is a thin layer of cells that lines the interior surface of blood vessels, including arterioles. What do arterioles lead to?; Arterioles lead to capillaries. What are capillaries?; Capillaries are the smallest-diameter blood vessels. What do capillaries connect?; Capillaries connect the smallest arterioles and the smallest venules. What are capillaries extensions of?; Capillaries are extensions of the inner lining of arterioles. What do the walls of capillaries consist of?; The walls of capillaries consist of endothelium (simple squamous epithelium) only. Are capillaries permeable?; Capillaries are semi-permeable. How is capillary blood flow regulated?; Capillary blood flow is regulated mainly by precapillary sphincters, which are smooth muscle surrounding capillaries when they branch off arterioles or metarterioles. What is the process by which substances are exchanged in capillaries?; Substances are exchanged by diffusion. Where are the openings in the walls of capillaries found?; Openings in the walls of capillaries are found where endothelial cells overlap. How does the size of openings in capillary walls vary?; The sizes of openings vary among tissues. What determines the permeability of capillaries?; Permeability varies with the size of slits in the capillary walls. What determines the density of capillary networks in a tissue?; The metabolic rate of a tissue determines the density of its capillary networks. Higher metabolic rates result in denser capillary networks. Which tissues have a rich capillary supply and why?; Muscle and nerve tissues have a rich capillary supply because they use a large amount of oxygen (O2) and nutrients. What characteristic do tissues with lower metabolic rates exhibit regarding capillaries?; Tissues with lower metabolic rates, such as cartilage, have fewer capillaries. What is the most important method of transfer in capillary exchange?; Diffusion. How do lipid-soluble substances transfer in capillary exchange?; Lipid-soluble substances diffuse through cell membrane. How do water-soluble substances transfer in capillary exchange?; Water-soluble substances diffuse through membrane channels and slits. What method uses hydrostatic pressure to force molecules through the membrane in capillary exchange?; Filtration. Where does the pressure for filtration in capillary exchange come from?; Pressure is derived from ventricular contraction. What creates osmotic pressure in capillaries?; The presence of impermeant solute, such as plasma proteins, inside capillaries creates osmotic pressure. What is the role of osmotic pressure in capillary exchange?; Osmotic pressure draws water into capillaries, opposing filtration. What happens at the arteriolar end of the capillary during capillary exchange?; At the arteriolar end of the capillary, H2O and other substances leave the capillary because hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmotic pressure. What happens at the venular end of the capillary during capillary exchange?; At the venular end of the capillary, H2O enters the capillary because osmotic pressure is greater than hydrostatic pressure. Why does H2O leave the capillary at the arteriolar end during capillary exchange?; H2O leaves the capillary at the arteriolar end because hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmotic pressure. Why does H2O enter the capillary at the venular end during capillary exchange?; H2O enters the capillary at the venular end because osmotic pressure is greater than hydrostatic pressure. What are venules?; Microscopic vessels that transport blood from the capillaries to veins. How do the walls and smooth muscle of venules compare to arterioles?; Venules have thinner walls and less smooth muscle than arterioles. What are the structural characteristics of veins compared to arteries?; Veins have thinner walls than arteries, consisting of three layers or tunics. The tunica media in veins is less developed. Under what pressure do veins carry blood?; Veins carry blood under relatively low pressure. What function do veins serve besides transporting blood?; Veins function as blood reservoirs. What feature do many veins possess to aid in blood flow?; Many veins have flap-like valves. What proportion of blood is in veins and venules at any time?; About two-thirds (2/3) of blood is in veins and venules at any time. Which blood vessels contain the highest distribution of blood?; Systemic veins contain the highest distribution of blood, accounting for 60-70%. What percentage of blood is typically found in the lungs?; Approximately 10-12% of blood is found in the lungs. What percentage of blood is typically found in the heart?; Approximately 8-11% of blood is found in the heart. What percentage of blood is typically found in systemic arteries?; Approximately 10-12% of blood is found in systemic arteries. What percentage of blood is typically found in capillaries?; Approximately 4-5% of blood is found in capillaries. What is the type of wall of an artery?; Thick, strong wall with three layers — an endothelial lining, a middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue, and an outer layer of connective tissue. What function does an artery serve?; Carries blood under relatively high pressure from the heart to arterioles. Describe the wall structure of an arteriole.; Thinner wall than an artery but with three layers; smaller arterioles have an endothelial lining, some smooth muscle tissue, and a small amount of connective tissue. What is the function of an arteriole?; Connects an artery to a capillary, helps control the blood flow into a capillary by vasoconstricting or vasodilating. What type of wall does a capillary have?; Single layer of squamous epithelium. What is the function of a capillary?; Allows nutrients, gases, and wastes to be exchanged between the blood and tissue fluid; connects an arteriole to a venule. Describe the wall structure of a venule.; Thinner wall than an arteriole, less smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue. What function does a venule serve?; Connects a capillary to a vein. What is the type of wall of a vein?; Thinner wall than an artery but with similar layers; the middle layer is more poorly developed; some have flap-like valves. What is the function of a vein?; Carries blood under relatively low pressure from a venule to the heart; valves prevent a backflow of blood; serves as a blood reservoir. What is Atherosclerosis?; Deposits of cholesterol plaque form in inner lining of walls of arteries. What is an Aneurysm?; A bulge in the wall of an artery, formed when blood pressure dilates a weakened area of the vessel; can burst wall of artery. What is Phlebitis?; Inflammation of a vein; common disorder. What are Varicose Veins?; Abnormal and irregular dilations in superficial veins; most common in legs. What is blood pressure?; The force the blood exerts against the inner walls of the blood vessels. What role does blood pressure play in the circulatory system?; Blood pressure circulates the blood. To what does the term 'blood pressure' most commonly refer?; The term 'blood pressure' most commonly refers to pressure in systemic arteries. Is there blood pressure throughout the vascular system?; Yes, there is blood pressure throughout the vascular system. How does blood move throughout the vascular system?; Blood moves from higher to lower pressure throughout the system. What happens to arterial blood pressure when the ventricles contract?; Arterial blood pressure rises when the ventricles contract. What occurs to arterial blood pressure when the ventricles relax?; Arterial blood pressure falls when the ventricles relax. What is systolic pressure (SP)?; Systolic pressure (SP) is the maximum pressure reached during ventricular contraction. What is diastolic pressure (DP)?; Diastolic pressure (DP) is the minimum pressure remaining before the next ventricular contraction. What is pulse pressure (PP)?; Pulse pressure (PP) is the difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressures (SP - DP). What does mean arterial pressure (MAP) represent?; Mean arterial pressure (MAP) represents the average pressure in the arterial system and the average force driving blood to the tissues. How is blood pressure typically stated?; Blood pressure is typically stated as a fraction, such as 120/80. In what units is blood pressure measured?; Blood pressure is measured in units of mm Hg. What is arterial blood pressure typically measured with?; Arterial blood pressure is typically measured with a sphygmomanometer. What component of a sphygmomanometer is used to inflate the cuff?; The bulb is used to inflate the cuff of a sphygmomanometer. What does the pressure gauge in a sphygmomanometer indicate?; The pressure gauge in a sphygmomanometer indicates the arterial blood pressure. What part of a sphygmomanometer controls the release of air?; The air control valve controls the release of air in a sphygmomanometer. What is the purpose of the inflatable cuff in a sphygmomanometer?; The inflatable cuff in a sphygmomanometer is used to apply pressure to the arm to measure arterial blood pressure. What happens to blood pressure as the distance from the left ventricle increases?; Blood pressure decreases as distance from the left ventricle increases. What is the graphical representation of systolic and diastolic pressure changes across different types of blood vessels?; The graph shows that systolic and diastolic pressures decrease as blood moves from large arteries to arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins. Where in the circulatory system is the blood pressure (both systolic and diastolic) the highest?; Blood pressure is highest in the aorta and large arteries. What happens to the pressure gradient between systolic and diastolic pressures as blood moves from arteries to veins?; The pressure gradient between systolic and diastolic pressures narrows as blood moves from arteries to veins. What is the temporal artery?; The temporal artery is located on the temple of the forehead, and it is one of the sites where the arterial pulse is most easily detected. What is the carotid artery?; The carotid artery is located in the neck and is a site where the arterial pulse can be easily detected. What is the facial artery?; The facial artery is located along the jawline and is one of the sites for easily detecting the arterial pulse. What is the brachial artery?; The brachial artery is located in the upper arm and is a common site for measuring the arterial pulse. What is the radial artery?; The radial artery is located on the wrist and is one of the primary sites for detecting the arterial pulse. What is the femoral artery?; The femoral artery is located in the thigh and is a key site for measuring the arterial pulse. What is the popliteal artery?; The popliteal artery is located behind the knee and is a site where the arterial pulse can be detected. What is the posterior tibial artery?; The posterior tibial artery is located near the ankle and is one of the sites for detecting the arterial pulse. What is the dorsalis pedis artery?; The dorsalis pedis artery is located on the top of the foot and is a site where the arterial pulse can be measured. What happens when blood volume increases?; Blood pressure increases. What is the effect of increased heart rate on blood pressure?; Blood pressure increases. How does an increase in stroke volume influence blood pressure?; Blood pressure increases. What is the result of increased blood viscosity on blood pressure?; Blood pressure increases. What effect does increased peripheral resistance have on blood pressure?; Blood pressure increases. What is Stroke Volume (SV)?; Volume of blood that enters the arteries with each ventricular contraction (~70 mL/beat). What is Cardiac Output (CO)?; Volume of blood discharged from a ventricle each minute. Cardiac output = Stroke volume × Heart rate. How is Cardiac Output (CO) calculated?; CO = SV × HR. For example, if SV = 70 mL/beat and HR = 72 beats/min, then CO = 5,040 mL/min. How does blood pressure vary with cardiac output?; Blood pressure varies with cardiac output. An increase in SV or HR causes an increase in CO, which increases the blood pressure (BP). What is blood volume?; Blood volume is the sum of volumes of plasma and formed elements. What factors can cause variations in blood volume?; Blood volume varies with age, body size, and gender. What is the typical blood volume for adults?; The typical blood volume for adults is about 5 liters, with females usually having 4 to 5 liters and males having 5 to 6 liters. What percentage of body weight does blood volume represent?; Blood volume represents about 8% of body weight. How is blood pressure related to blood volume?; Blood pressure is directly proportional to blood volume. How can changes in blood volume affect blood pressure?; Any factor that changes blood volume can change blood pressure. For example, decreased blood volume due to hemorrhage decreases blood pressure. What is Peripheral Resistance (PR)?; Peripheral Resistance (PR) is the force of friction between blood and walls of blood vessels. What must blood pressure overcome in order to flow?; Blood pressure must overcome Peripheral Resistance (PR) in order to flow. How do factors that change PR affect blood pressure?; Factors that change Peripheral Resistance (PR) also change blood pressure. What effect does vasoconstriction of arterioles have on PR and blood pressure?; Vasoconstriction of arterioles increases Peripheral Resistance (PR), which increases the blood pressure. What happens to arteries when blood is pumped out of ventricles?; When blood is pumped out of ventricles, arteries swell; rapid elastic recoil sends the blood through the arteries, against Peripheral Resistance (PR) in arterioles and capillaries. What is viscosity?; Difficulty with which molecules of fluid flow past each other. How does viscosity affect blood flow?; Greater the viscosity, the greater the resistance to blood flow. What increases the viscosity of the blood?; Blood cells and plasma proteins increase the viscosity of the blood. What happens when the resistance to flow increases due to viscosity?; Greater the resistance to flow, greater the force necessary to transport the blood, which increases the blood pressure. What can alter blood viscosity?; Any factor that alters concentration of blood cells or plasma proteins also alters blood viscosity. How does anemia affect blood viscosity and blood pressure?; Anemia lowers concentration of blood cells, which lowers blood viscosity and consequently lowers blood pressure. What is blood pressure (BP) determined by?; Blood pressure (BP) is determined by cardiac output (CO) and peripheral resistance (PR). What is the formula for blood pressure (BP)?; BP = CO × PR, where BP is blood pressure, CO is cardiac output, and PR is peripheral resistance. What are the two factors that need to be regulated to maintain blood pressure?; Maintenance of blood pressure requires regulation of cardiac output (CO) and peripheral resistance (PR). What happens when cardiac output increases?; Blood pressure increases. What stimulates baroreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses?; Increased blood pressure. What effect do sensory impulses to the cardiac center have?; They result in parasympathetic impulses to the heart. What is the result of parasympathetic impulses to the heart?; Inhibition of the SA node, leading to a decreased heart rate. What happens to blood pressure when the heart rate decreases?; Blood pressure returns toward normal. What triggers the stimulation of baroreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses?; Rising blood pressure. What is the outcome when the vasomotor center is inhibited?; Less frequent sympathetic impulses to arteriole walls. How does vasodilation of arterioles affect peripheral resistance?; It decreases peripheral resistance. What is the final outcome of decreased peripheral resistance?; Blood pressure returns toward normal. What is hypertension?; Long-lasting elevated arterial blood pressure. What are some causes of hypertension?; Unknown cause, increased Na+ intake, psychological stress that activates the sympathetic nervous system, obesity (by increasing the peripheral resistance), kidney disease (via renin-angiotensin response). Why is hypertension often referred to as the 'silent killer'?; Because it may not cause any direct symptoms. How does hypertension contribute to the formation of atherosclerosis?; Hypertension can damage the inner lining of the arteries, leading to the formation of plaques that cause atherosclerosis. What are some potential complications of hypertension?; Coronary thrombosis or embolism, cerebral thrombosis, embolism, or hemorrhage, transient ischemic attack (TIA, ministroke), or cerebral vascular accident (CVA, stroke). How can hypertension be prevented?; Healthy diet and weight, regular exercise, limiting Na+ intake. What are some treatments for hypertension?; Diuretics, sympathetic inhibitors. What is venous blood flow partly a direct result of?; Venous blood flow is only partly a direct result of heart action. What are the factors venous blood flow is dependent on?; Venous blood flow is dependent on skeletal muscle contraction, breathing movements, and vasoconstriction of veins. What happens to blood pressure as blood moves through the arterial system into the capillary network?; Blood pressure decreases as the blood moves through the arterial system and into the capillary network, so little pressure remains at the venous ends of the capillaries. What role does skeletal muscle contraction play in venous blood flow?; Skeletal muscle contraction helps to propel blood through the veins toward the heart. How do breathing movements affect venous blood flow?; Breathing movements create pressure changes in the thoracic cavity that assist in moving blood toward the heart. What is the effect of vasoconstriction of veins on venous blood flow?; Vasoconstriction of veins helps to increase venous return by reducing the volume of the veins and pushing blood toward the heart. What is the pressure in the right atrium called?; Central venous pressure. Where do all veins, except those returning to the heart from the lungs, drain into?; The right atrium. What affects pressure within the peripheral veins?; Central venous pressure. What happens to central venous pressure when the heart is weakly beating?; It increases. What does an increase in central venous pressure cause in peripheral veins?; It causes blood to back up into the peripheral veins. What condition can result from an increase in central venous pressure?; Peripheral edema. What factors can increase blood flow to the right atrium, thereby increasing central venous pressure?; Increase in blood volume or venoconstriction. What adaptations occur in the cardiovascular system with aerobic exercise?; Increased pumping efficiency, blood volume, hemoglobin concentration, number of mitochondria, heart enlargement (up to 40% or more), increased stroke volume, and decreased heart rate and blood pressure. By what percentage can the heart enlarge due to aerobic exercise?; The heart may enlarge by 40% or more. What happens to stroke volume as a result of aerobic exercise?; Stroke volume increases. How does regular aerobic exercise affect heart rate and blood pressure?; Regular aerobic exercise decreases heart rate and blood pressure. For exercise to benefit the cardiovascular system, what percentage of maximum heart rate should be reached?; Heart rate must increase to 70 to 85% of maximum (220 minus your age). How long should each exercise session last to benefit the cardiovascular system?; Each exercise session must last 30 to 60 minutes. How frequently should aerobic exercise be performed to benefit the cardiovascular system?; Aerobic exercise should be performed at least 3 to 4 times a week. What is the pulmonary circuit?; The pulmonary circuit is the pathway of blood vessels that carries blood between the heart and the lungs for gas exchange. What is the systemic circuit?; The systemic circuit is the pathway of blood vessels that carries blood between the heart and the rest of the body to deliver oxygen and nutrients. What is the path of blood flow in the pulmonary circuit?; Right ventricle → pulmonary trunk → right and left pulmonary arteries → lobar branches, repeated divisions → pulmonary arterioles → pulmonary capillaries → pulmonary venules and veins → left atrium. What is the composition of blood in pulmonary arteries and arterioles?; Blood in pulmonary arteries and arterioles is low in O2 and high in CO2. Where does gas exchange occur in the pulmonary circuit?; Gas exchange occurs in pulmonary (alveolar) capillaries. What is the composition of blood in pulmonary venules and veins?; Blood in pulmonary venules and veins is rich in O2 and low in CO2. What is the path of blood flow in the systemic circuit?; Left ventricle → aorta → all arteries and arterioles leading to body tissues → systemic capillaries → systemic venules and veins → right atrium. Where does oxygen-rich blood move from the left atrium?; Oxygen-rich blood moves from the left atrium to the left ventricle. What initiates the systemic circuit?; Contraction of the left ventricle sends blood into the systemic circuit. What effect does high osmotic pressure in interstitial fluid have on water in alveoli?; High osmotic pressure in interstitial fluid draws water out of alveoli. What is the role of solutes that fail to enter the alveoli?; Solutes that fail to enter the alveoli contribute to the osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid. Where does fluid from the interstitial space enter in the alveolar wall?; Fluid from the interstitial space enters the lymphatic capillary or alveolar (blood) capillary. What happens to excess water in the alveoli?; Any excess water in the alveoli is drawn out by the higher osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid. What is the largest artery in the body?; The aorta is the largest artery in the body. It supplies blood to all of the systemic arteries. What regions or organs are supplied by the right and left coronary arteries?; Heart What regions or organs are supplied by the celiac artery?; Organs of upper digestive tract What regions or organs are supplied by the brachiocephalic trunk?; Right upper limb, right side of head What regions or organs are supplied by the phrenic artery?; Diaphragm What regions or organs are supplied by the left common carotid artery?; Left side of head What regions or organs are supplied by the superior mesenteric artery?; Portions of small and large intestines What regions or organs are supplied by the left subclavian artery?; Left upper limb What regions or organs are supplied by the suprarenal artery?; Adrenal gland What regions or organs are supplied by the renal artery?; Kidney What regions or organs are supplied by the bronchial artery?; Bronchi What regions or organs are supplied by the gonadal artery?; Ovary or testis What regions or organs are supplied by the pericardial artery?; Pericardium What regions or organs are supplied by the inferior mesenteric artery?; Lower portions of large intestine What regions or organs are supplied by the esophageal artery?; Esophagus What regions or organs are supplied by the lumbar artery?; Posterior abdominal wall What regions or organs are supplied by the mediastinal artery?; Mediastinum What regions or organs are supplied by the middle sacral artery?; Sacrum and coccyx What regions or organs are supplied by the posterior intercostal artery?; Thoracic wall What regions or organs are supplied by the common iliac artery?; Lower abdominal wall, pelvic organs, and lower limb What is the function of the superior vena cava?; The superior vena cava carries deoxygenated blood from the upper half of the body to the right atrium of the heart. What is the pulmonary trunk?; The pulmonary trunk is a major vessel that carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs for oxygenation. What is the aortic arch?; The aortic arch is the portion of the main artery that bends between the ascending and descending aorta, distributing blood from the left ventricle of the heart to the rest of the body. What is the function of the left pulmonary artery?; The left pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the left lung. What is the brachiocephalic trunk?; The brachiocephalic trunk is a major artery that supplies blood to the right arm and the head and neck. What vessels are included in the brachiocephalic veins?; The brachiocephalic veins are formed by the union of the internal jugular veins and subclavian veins, and they merge to form the superior vena cava. What is the ligamentum arteriosum?; The ligamentum arteriosum is a small ligament that is the remnant of the ductus arteriosus, which is formed within three weeks after birth. What is the function of the right pulmonary veins?; The right pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the right lung to the left atrium of the heart. What is the right auricle?; The right auricle is a small, ear-shaped pouch in the right atrium that increases the capacity of the atrium. What is the function of the left subclavian artery?; The left subclavian artery supplies blood to the left arm. What is the abdominal aorta?; The abdominal aorta is the largest artery in the abdominal cavity that supplies blood to the abdominal organs and lower parts of the body. What is the function of the renal arteries?; The renal arteries supply blood to the kidneys. What does the celiac artery supply?; The celiac artery supplies blood to the liver, stomach, and spleen. What is the role of the superior mesenteric artery?; The superior mesenteric artery supplies blood to the intestines. Where does the common iliac artery supply blood?; The common iliac artery supplies blood to the lower limbs and pelvic organs. What is the significance of the inferior mesenteric artery?; The inferior mesenteric artery supplies blood to the distal part of the large intestine. What is the hepatic artery responsible for?; The hepatic artery supplies oxygenated blood to the liver. What is the function of the splenic artery?; The splenic artery supplies blood to the spleen. What arteries supply blood to the brain, head, and neck?; Branches of the subclavian and common carotid arteries supply blood to the brain, head, and neck. Which artery is responsible for supplying blood to the basal part of the brain?; The basilar artery is responsible for supplying blood to the basal part of the brain. What is the function of the internal carotid artery?; The internal carotid artery supplies blood to the brain. What role does the external carotid artery play in the circulatory system?; The external carotid artery supplies blood to the face and neck. Which artery is located at the base of the neck and supplies blood to the upper limbs and parts of the brain?; The subclavian artery is located at the base of the neck and supplies blood to the upper limbs and parts of the brain. What is the function of the vertebral artery?; The vertebral artery supplies blood to the spinal column and brain. Which artery supplies blood to the facial muscles and scalp?; The superficial temporal artery supplies blood to the facial muscles and scalp. What artery provides blood to the thyroid gland?; The superior thyroid artery provides blood to the thyroid gland. What is the cerebral arterial circle (circle of Willis)?; The cerebral arterial circle (circle of Willis) joins the carotid and vertebral artery systems and provides alternate pathways for blood to reach the brain. What is the function of the cerebral arteries that emerge from the circle of Willis?; The cerebral arteries that emerge from the circle of Willis supply blood to brain tissues. What artery gives off branches in the neck and then continues into the arm?; The subclavian artery gives off branches in the neck and then continues into the arm. What is the name of the artery that continues from the subclavian artery into the arm?; The axillary artery continues from the subclavian artery into the arm. Which artery is found in the upper arm and is a continuation of the axillary artery?; The brachial artery is found in the upper arm and is a continuation of the axillary artery. Name the artery that branches off from the brachial artery and travels along the lateral side of the forearm.; The radial artery branches off from the brachial artery and travels along the lateral side of the forearm. Which artery branches off from the brachial artery and travels along the medial side of the forearm?; The ulnar artery branches off from the brachial artery and travels along the medial side of the forearm. What is the name of the artery that supplies blood to the thumb?; The principal artery of the thumb supplies blood to the thumb. Which artery is responsible for forming the deep palmar arch in the hand?; The radial artery is responsible for forming the deep palmar arch in the hand. What is the function of the superficial palmar arch?; The superficial palmar arch provides blood supply to the palm and fingers. What artery is one of the vessels that supplies blood to the thoracic wall?; The subclavian artery is one of the vessels that supplies blood to the thoracic wall. Which major vessel supplies blood to the thoracic wall along with branches from the subclavian artery?; The thoracic aorta supplies blood to the thoracic wall along with branches from the subclavian artery. What does the abdominal aorta divide into?; The abdominal aorta divides into the common iliac arteries. What regions do the common iliac arteries supply blood to?; The common iliac arteries supply blood to the pelvic organs, gluteal region, and lower limbs. Into what arteries does the common iliac artery divide?; The common iliac artery divides into the internal iliac artery and external iliac artery. What areas does the internal iliac artery supply blood to?; The internal iliac artery supplies blood to the pelvic and gluteal areas. What provides the major blood supply to the lower limbs?; The external iliac arteries provide the major blood supply to the lower limbs. What is the function of the Superior Vena Cava?; The Superior Vena Cava returns deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the heart. Where is the Great Saphenous Vein located?; The Great Saphenous Vein is located in the leg, running from the ankle to the groin. What is the role of the Femoral Vein?; The Femoral Vein carries deoxygenated blood from the lower limb back to the heart. Describe the function of the Internal Jugular Vein.; The Internal Jugular Vein drains blood from the brain, face, and neck, returning it to the heart. What does the Subclavian Vein do?; The Subclavian Vein drains blood from the upper extremities and returns it to the heart. Where is the Popliteal Vein situated?; The Popliteal Vein is located behind the knee and drains blood from the lower leg. What is the significance of the External Iliac Vein?; The External Iliac Vein carries blood from the lower limbs and pelvis back to the heart. What is the function of the Cephalic Vein?; The Cephalic Vein is a superficial vein in the arm that returns blood to the heart. What is systemic venous circulation?; Systemic venous circulation returns blood to the heart after the exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes between blood and cells. How do vessels of the venous system originate?; Vessels of the venous system originate from the merging of capillaries into venules, venules into small veins, and small veins into larger ones. Why are venous pathways difficult to follow?; Venous pathways are difficult to follow due to irregular networks and unnamed tributaries. How do the pathways of larger veins usually compare to arteries?; Pathways of larger veins usually parallel arteries of the same name. Where do all systemic veins converge?; All systemic veins converge into the superior and inferior venae cavae, and return to the heart through the right atrium. What do the external jugular veins drain blood from?; The external jugular veins drain blood from the face, scalp, and superficial neck. What do the internal jugular veins drain blood from?; The internal jugular veins drain blood from the brain, and deep portions of the face and neck. What are the two systems of veins that drain the upper limb and shoulder?; The deep set of veins and the superficial set of veins. What veins do the digital veins drain into in the deep set of veins?; The digital veins drain into the radial and ulnar veins, which then drain into the brachial veins. In the superficial set of veins, where do anastomoses in the palm and wrist drain?; Anastomoses in the palm and wrist drain into the basilic and cephalic veins. Which vein does the basilic vein join?; The basilic vein joins the brachial vein. Which vein does the cephalic vein join?; The cephalic vein joins the axillary vein. What veins drain the abdominal and thoracic walls?; The abdominal and thoracic walls are drained by tributaries of the brachiocephalic and azygos veins. Into which vein does the azygos vein drain directly?; The azygos vein drains directly into the superior vena cava. What are portal veins unusual for?; Portal veins are unusual because they do not transport blood directly to the heart. What is the unique venous pathway that drains the abdominal viscera called?; The unique venous pathway that drains the abdominal viscera is called the hepatic portal system. Which vein transports blood from capillaries in the stomach, intestines, pancreas, and spleen to the liver?; The hepatic portal vein transports blood from capillaries in the stomach, intestines, pancreas, and spleen to the liver. Where is blood processed before it is delivered to the inferior vena cava?; Blood is processed in the liver before it is delivered to the inferior vena cava. What is a portal system?; Portal systems filter blood through 2 sets of capillaries, instead of the usual 1 set. What is the unique function of the second set of capillaries in portal systems?; The second set of capillaries in portal systems performs a unique function in filtering and processing blood. What is the Hepatic Portal System?; The Hepatic Portal System is a portal system that filters blood through two sets of capillaries, specifically involving the liver. What is the Renal Portal System?; The Renal Portal System is a portal system that filters blood through two sets of capillaries, specifically involving the kidneys. What are the two groups of veins that drain blood from the lower limb?; Deep and superficial groups of veins. What veins in the foot drain into the anterior and posterior tibial veins?; Deep set of veins. Into which vein do the anterior and posterior tibial veins drain?; Popliteal vein. Which vein does the popliteal vein drain into?; Femoral vein. Which vein does the femoral vein drain into?; External iliac vein. Which veins in the foot drain into the small and great saphenous veins?; Superficial set of veins. Which vein is the longest in the body?; Great saphenous vein. What is deposited in the blood vessels as a life-span change?; Cholesterol deposition in the blood vessels. What happens to coronary arteries as a life-span change?; Narrowed coronary arteries. How might the heart change in size due to disease?; The heart may shrink slightly, or enlarge due to disease. What happens to the proportion of the heart consisting of cardiac muscle?; The proportion of the heart consisting of cardiac muscle declines. What kind of tissue increases in the heart with age?; Increase in fibrous connective tissue of the heart. What happens to adipose tissue in the heart as a life-span change?; Increase in adipose tissue of the heart. What changes may occur to heart valves and the left ventricular wall?; Heart valves and left ventricular wall may thicken. What happens to systolic blood pressure with age?; Increase in systolic blood pressure. What happens to resting heart rate as a life-span change?; Decrease in resting heart rate. What happens to the lumens of large arteries as arterial walls thicken?; Lumens of large arteries narrow, as arterial walls thicken. What happens to arterial elasticity with age?; Decrease in arterial elasticity. What is Marfan syndrome?; Marfan syndrome is a connective tissue defect involving an abnormal type of the protein fibrillin, which can weaken the wall of the aorta and result in the bursting of the aorta and sudden death. What is Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?; Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is an inherited overgrowth of myocardium caused by an abnormal myosin chain in cardiac muscle, which can result in sudden death. What results from an inherited deficiency of a mitochondrial enzyme that breaks down fatty acids?; Heart failure results from the inability to break down long-chain fatty acids and use them for energy, as cardiac muscle uses these fatty acids as a primary energy source. What is Familial hypercholesterolemia?; Familial hypercholesterolemia is a condition where abnormal LDL (low-density lipoprotein) receptors on liver cells do not take up cholesterol from the blood, resulting in high cholesterol and coronary artery disease. What is Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)?; A disease involving the deposition of cholesterol plaque on the inner walls of coronary arteries, leading to obstruction of coronary arteries and oxygen deficiency in cardiac muscle. What are common symptoms of Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)?; Often causes pain in the chest upon exertion, called angina pectoris. What conditions often accompany Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)?; High serum cholesterol and hypertension. What is a major contributing factor to myocardial infarction (heart attack)?; Coronary Artery Disease (CAD). What are the common treatments for Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)?; Treatments include percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) and coronary bypass surgery. Where is the aortic valve best heard?; In the second intercostal space right of the sternum. Where is the pulmonary valve best heard?; In the second intercostal space left of the sternum. Where is the tricuspid valve best heard?; At the fifth intercostal space left of the sternum. Where is the mitral valve best heard?; In the fifth intercostal space on the left at the nipple line. Where can the pulse be taken for the temporal artery?; Anterior to the ear. Where is the pulse taken for the carotid artery?; In the inferior medial portion of the neck. Where is the pulse taken for the brachial artery?; In the distal brachial region on the anterior side. Where is the pulse taken for the radial artery?; On the lateral side of the wrist on the anterior side. Where is the pulse taken for the femoral artery?; In the inguinal region. Where is the pulse taken for the popliteal artery?; In the popliteal region. Where is the pulse taken for the dorsalis pedis artery?; On the anterior ankle. Where is the pulse taken for the posterior tibia artery?; On the posterior ankle. What are the functions of the organs of the cardiovascular system?; The organs of the cardiovascular system, including the heart and blood vessels, are responsible for pumping blood, delivering oxygen and nutrients to tissues, and removing waste products. What are the coverings of the heart?; The coverings of the heart include the fibrous pericardium, parietal pericardium, and visceral pericardium (epicardium). What are the layers that compose the wall of the heart?; The wall of the heart is composed of three layers: the epicardium (outer layer), myocardium (middle muscular layer), and endocardium (inner layer). What are the major parts of the heart?; The major parts of the heart include the atria, ventricles, valves (tricuspid, pulmonary, mitral, and aortic), septum, and major blood vessels (aorta, vena cava, pulmonary arteries, and pulmonary veins). What is the function of the atria?; The atria are the upper chambers of the heart that receive blood returning to the heart from the body and lungs. What is the function of the ventricles?; The ventricles are the lower chambers of the heart that pump blood out of the heart to the lungs (right ventricle) and the rest of the body (left ventricle). What is the function of the heart valves?; The heart valves ensure one-way blood flow through the heart, preventing backflow. They include the tricuspid valve, pulmonary valve, mitral valve, and aortic valve. What is the pathway of blood through the heart?; Blood flows from the body into the right atrium, through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle, then through the pulmonary valve to the lungs. Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium, passes through the mitral valve to the left ventricle, and is pumped through the aortic valve to the body. What are the vessels of coronary circulation?; The vessels of coronary circulation include the coronary arteries, which supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle, and the coronary veins, which remove deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle. What is the cardiac cycle?; The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occurs during one heartbeat, including the contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) of the atria and ventricles. How are heart sounds produced?; Heart sounds are produced by the closing of the heart valves. The 'lub' sound is caused by the closure of the atrioventricular valves (tricuspid and mitral), and the 'dub' sound is caused by the closure of the semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic). What are the parts of a normal ECG pattern?; The parts of a normal ECG pattern include the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave, which represent different phases of the cardiac cycle. The P wave indicates atrial depolarization, the QRS complex indicates ventricular depolarization, and the T wave indicates ventricular repolarization. What is the significance of the P wave in an ECG pattern?; The P wave in an ECG pattern signifies atrial depolarization, which is associated with the contraction of the atria. What is the QRS complex in an ECG pattern?; The QRS complex in an ECG pattern represents ventricular depolarization, which leads to the contraction of the ventricles. What does the T wave in an ECG pattern indicate?; The T wave in an ECG pattern indicates ventricular repolarization, which is the recovery phase of the ventricles after contraction. How is the cardiac cycle controlled?; The cardiac cycle is controlled by the sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers, which coordinate the timing of heart muscle contractions. What are the major types of blood vessels?; The major types of blood vessels are arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood to the heart, and capillaries are involved in the exchange of substances between blood and tissues. How are substances exchanged between blood in capillaries and tissue fluid?; Substances are exchanged between blood in capillaries and tissue fluid through processes such as diffusion, filtration, and osmosis, allowing nutrients and oxygen to enter tissues and waste products to be removed. How is blood pressure produced?; Blood pressure is produced by the force of the heart pumping blood through the arteries and the resistance of the blood vessels to blood flow. What mechanisms aid in returning venous blood to the heart?; Mechanisms that aid in returning venous blood to the heart include the contraction of skeletal muscles (muscle pump), the presence of valves in veins to prevent backflow, and the respiratory pump, which creates pressure changes in the thoracic cavity during breathing. What are the pulmonary and systemic circuits of the cardiovascular system?; The pulmonary circuit carries blood between the heart and the lungs for gas exchange, while the systemic circuit transports oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart. What are the main functions of the arterial system?; The arterial system is responsible for delivering oxygenated blood from the heart to various parts of the body. What are the major veins in the venous system?; The major veins in the venous system include the superior and inferior vena cava, which return deoxygenated blood to the heart from the upper and lower parts of the body, respectively. What are some major arteries in the human body?; Some major arteries include the aorta, coronary arteries, carotid arteries, and femoral arteries, which deliver oxygenated blood to various parts of the body. How do the major veins function in the circulatory system?; Major veins collect deoxygenated blood from different parts of the body and return it to the heart for reoxygenation through the lungs. What are some lifespan changes in the cardiovascular system?; Lifespan changes in the cardiovascular system include increased stiffness of blood vessels, reduced elasticity of the heart, and a general decline in cardiac output and efficiency.