AMSCO World History Notes

Unit 1: The Global Tapestry from c. 1200 to c. 1450

Topic 1.1: Developments in East Asia

The Song Dynasty in China

• The Song Dynasty (960-1279) was exemplified by diversity and innovation, making significant contributions to the world in the 11th century.

• It enjoyed great wealth, political stability, and notable artistic and intellectual achievements.

• Neo-Confucian teachings heavily influenced government, social classes, and family structure.

• China developed the greatest manufacturing capacity in the world, alongside a lasting influence of Confucianism and Buddhism.

Government Developments in the Song Dynasty

• Transition from Tang to Song:

  • Succeeded the Tang dynasty and ruled for over three centuries, despite losing northern lands to the Jin Empire.

• Bureaucracy:

  • The imperial bureaucracy expanded; it had been a feature since the Qin Dynasty and was crucial to China's governance.

• Meritocracy and Civil Service Exam:

  • Emperor Song Taizu expanded educational access for lower economic classes, linking knowledge of Confucian texts with governance.

  • This meritocratic system allowed upward social mobility, although, by the end of the Song, it contributed to government inefficiency due to its size and cost.

Economic Developments

• The prosperous agricultural policies of the Tang led to growth during the Song Dynasty with significant population increases.

• Grand Canal:

  • Critical for trade, extending over 30,000 miles.

• Agricultural Innovations:

  • Introduction of Champa rice facilitated crop rotation and increased yields.

  • Use of manure, irrigation systems, and heavy plows enhanced agricultural productivity.

• Manufacturing & Trade:

  • Industrial production soared with advancements in iron and steel; proto-industrialization emerged with rural production.

  • Trade networks extended, especially maritime, enhancing the economy.

  • Key exports included porcelain, textiles, and tea.

  • The tributary system brought in income and political stability.

Social Structures in China

• Urbanization:

  • Cities like Chang’an and Hangzhou became cosmopolitan centers, marking China as the most urbanized region globally.

• Class Structure:

  • Rise of the scholar-gentry, reflecting Confucian values; lower classes included farmers, artisans, and merchants.

• Role of Women:

  • Women’s status was diminished under Confucian ideals, characterized by practices like foot binding, culminating in a heightened patriarchal society.

Intellectual and Cultural Developments

• Flourishing literary culture with a focus on poetry, facilitated by advancements in paper and printing, particularly in woodblock techniques.

• Religious Diversity:

  • Buddhism gained popularity, adapting through Daoist influences to create Chan (Zen) Buddhism, which emphasized experience over doctrine.

  • Neo-Confucianism combined rational thought with religious philosophy, becoming a prevalent ideology in East Asia.

Comparison with Japan, Korea, and Vietnam

• Japan:

  • Controlled its relations with China, differed in feudal structures, focusing on Bushido as a code of honor.

• Korea:

  • Emulated Chinese governance but retained a strong aristocracy preventing full implementation of reforms.

• Vietnam:

  • Showed resistance against Chinese domination, fostering distinct cultural practices and social structures, such as greater independence for women and a preference for nuclear family units.

Military Conflicts with China

• During the decline of the Tang, Vietnamese rebels successfully expelled Chinese armies, demonstrating guerrilla warfare skills due to their knowledge of the terrain.

Topic 1.2: Developments in Dar al-Islam

• Spread of Islam: After Muhammad's death in 632, Islam expanded from Arabia through military actions, merchants, and missionaries, reaching India to Spain. Islamic leaders showed tolerance towards followers of other monotheistic religions.

• The Abbasid Empire: Under the Abbasid Empire, institutions like the House of Wisdom in Baghdad became centers for learning. The Islamic community facilitated knowledge transfer across Afro-Eurasia.

Invasions and Shifts in Trade Routes

• Challenges: In the 1100s-1200s, the Abbasid Empire faced conflicts with nomadic groups and Crusaders. The Mamluks rose to power, controlling Egypt and facilitating trade, but declined after new European sea routes emerged.

• Seljuk Turks: They conquered parts of the Middle East and reduced the Abbasid caliphate's role.

• Mongol Conquests: The Mongols conquered the Abbasid Empire in 1258, stopping in Egypt against the Mamluks.

• Economic Changes: Trade routes shifted north, causing Baghdad to lose its prominence, wealth, and urban population.

Cultural and Social Life

• Fragmentation of Islamic World: Political fragmentation led to the emergence of Turkic-based states such as the Ottoman Empire, Safavid Empire, and Mughal Empire, which retained some Abbasid cultural practices.

• Centers of Learning: Universities in cities like Baghdad, Córdoba, and Cairo fostered intellectual sharing.

• Cultural Continuities and Innovations: Scholars translated Greek texts, advanced mathematics, and adopted paper-making, contributing to knowledge preservation.

• Notable Scholars:

  • Nasir al-Din al-Tusi: Contributed to various sciences, established advanced observatories, and laid groundwork for trigonometry.

  • Ibn Khaldun: Acknowledged as a founder of historiography and sociology.

  • ‘A’ishah al-Ba’uniyyah: Prolific female Muslim poet known for her mystical works.

Commerce, Class, and Diversity

• Islamic society valued merchants highly, leading to prosperous trade along the Silk Roads. Merchants could gain wealth and status.

• Slavery and Women's Status:

  • Islamic laws prohibited enslaving fellow Muslims and certain monotheists but allowed slavery of others.

  • Enslaved women had more independence than wives in certain contexts.

  • Women's status improved under Muhammad’s policies, yet limitations developed due to urbanization and cultural influences.

• Islamic Rule in Spain: The Umayyads established power in Spain; the Battle of Tours marked the limit of Islamic expansion in Western Europe. Al-Andalus became a center of learning and cultural exchange.

• Cultural and Scholarly Transfers: Interaction among Muslims, Christians, and Jews influenced scholarly work, promoting advancements that later contributed to the Renaissance and Scientific Revolution.

Topic 1.3: Developments in South and Southeast Asia

Interaction of Religions

• Lal Ded, known as Mother Lalla, symbolizes the dynamic intersection of religious traditions influencing South and Southern Asia's history. Though a Hindu, her focus on experiential spirituality attracted many Muslims, particularly Sufis.

• The interactions between Hindus and Muslims, despite conflicts, fostered significant advancements in religious thought, politics, economics, art, and architecture. Despite the Islamic presence, regional Hindu kingdoms remained influential in India's decentralized political landscape. Buddhism also held a strong position, notably within the Sinhala dynasties of present-day Sri Lanka and various Southeast Asian kingdoms.

Political Structures in South Asia

• South Asia has rarely functioned as a unified state. Following the Gupta Dynasty's collapse around 550 AD, known as the end of the Golden Age, the region reverted to fragmentation for approximately 1,000 years, leading to distinct political structures in northern and southern India. Hinduism provided cultural cohesion among diverse local beliefs.

• Southern India: More stable compared to the north, home to the Chola Dynasty (850-1276) which expanded to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). The Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646), founded by two brothers from the Delhi Sultanate who returned to Hinduism, marked a significant Hindu kingdom.

• Northern India: Exhibited greater upheaval with the emergence of Rajput kingdoms after the Gupta Empire’s fall. These kingdoms, often engaged in inter-clan conflict, struggled to form centralized governance, making them susceptible to Muslim invasions.

Islamic Influence in India

• The initial Islamic invasions in the 8th century had fleeting impacts. By the 11th century, plunder of temples and establishment of mosques intensified tensions, leading to the formation of the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526). This era was marked by significant interactions between Islam and Hinduism, with the jizya tax imposed on non-Muslims sparking resentment among Hindus.

• Although Muslim rulers aimed to extend their influence, the Delhi Sultanate faced challenges from the Mongols, ultimately giving way to the Mughal Empire in 1526.

Religion's Role in South Asia

• Historically dominated by Hinduism and a minority of Buddhists, South Asia's religious landscape changed dramatically with the arrival of Islam. Hindus practiced polytheism within a caste hierarchy, contrasting sharply with Islam's monotheism.

• Islam's arrival was initially forceful but transitioned to a more voluntary acceptance. Many low-caste Hindus and Buddhists converted, seeking equality within Islam, akin to early Christianity's appeal in the Roman Empire.

Social Structures

• Despite Islam's spread, the rigid caste system largely persisted, serving as a stabilizing yet inequitable force in society. Muslim migrants often assimilated into local caste structures based on their occupations. Conversion to Islam, while a means to escape the caste system, did not guarantee improved social status, as further education and opportunities were necessary.

Cultural Interaction

• Intellectual exchange thrived between South Asia and the Middle East, particularly in mathematics and astronomy, influencing advancements across cultures. Notably, the numeral system known as "Arabic numerals" originated in India.

• Architectural styles merged, with structures like the Qutub Minar in Delhi exemplifying the artistic fusion of Hindu and Islamic architecture. Urdu emerged as a new linguistic blend of Hindi with Arabic vocabulary, now serving as Pakistan's official language.

The Bhakti Movement

• Emerging in the 12th century, the Bhakti Movement emphasized emotional devotion to deities over traditional rituals, appealing to all social classes, including women. Mystical in nature, it drew parallels to Sufiism by fostering personal connections to the divine, facilitating the spread of both Hinduism and Islam.

Southeast Asia

• Indian traders established contact with Southeast Asian regions by 500 B.C.E., disseminating Hinduism and Buddhism. Much of Southeast Asia remains predominantly Buddhist.

• Prominent kingdoms such as Srivijaya (670–1025) and Majapahit (1293–1527), which controlled maritime routes, exemplified Indian cultural influence.

• The Khmer Empire near the Mekong River thrived economically through advanced irrigation, with significant cultural artworks reflecting Hindu and later Buddhist traditions.

• Islam's penetration into Southeast Asia commenced with local merchants converting in the 700s, favoring trade relations. Today, Indonesia stands as the nation with the highest Muslim population, showcasing Islam's adaptability alongside local traditions through Sufi missionary efforts, allowing dual adherence to Islam and indigenous deities.

Topic 1.4 Developments in the Americas

Overview of Civilizations

• Following the decline of the Olmecs in Mesoamerica and the Chavin in the Andes, new civilizations such as the Mayans, Aztecs, and Incas emerged in these regions. Additionally, the first large-scale civilization in North America, known as the Mississippian culture, developed.

• Similar to those in Afro-Eurasia, these civilizations established strong states, robust urban centers, and complex belief systems. Current knowledge about these societies is derived from archaeological evidence, oral traditions, and European accounts post-1492.

The Mississippian Culture

• The Mississippian culture arose around 800 CE in present-day eastern United States, built monumental earthen mounds, with Cahokia being the largest, reaching heights of 100 feet and covering extensive areas.

• Government and Society: It had a rigid class structure ruled by a chief, the Great Sun, supported by an upper class of priests and nobles, while the lower classes consisted of farmers, hunters, merchandise, and artisans.

  • Matrilineal society where lineage and social standing were determined through the female line, exemplified by succession patterns where titles passed to a sister's son.

• Decline of the Mississippian Civilization: Cahokia was abandoned around 1450, with historians debating causes of decline. Theories include climatic changes leading to food shortages or diseases brought by Europeans.

Chaco and Mesa Verde

• Two notable cultures in the southwestern United States, adapted to arid environments and developed innovative water collection and building techniques.

  • Chaco: Known for large stone and clay housing structures with hundreds of rooms.

  • Mesa Verde: Famous for multi-story cliff dwellings constructed with sandstone bricks.

The Maya City-States

• The Mayan civilization flourished between 250 and 900 CE across southern Mexico, Belize, Honduras, and Guatemala, with approximately 70 city-states housing 5,000 to 50,000 people.

• Mayan Government: Primarily city-states ruled by kings, with women assuming leadership roles when no male heirs were available. Inter-city warfare typically revolved around gaining tribute rather than land control.

  • Kings were viewed as descendants of gods, and their rule legitimized by priestly guidance.

• Religion, Science, and Technology: The Mayans made significant advancements in mathematics (including the concept of zero), developed a sophisticated writing system, and were renowned for their astronomical knowledge and precise calendars. They constructed observatories atop pyramids for celestial observations, impacting agricultural and ceremonial practices.

The Aztecs

• The Aztecs, originally hunter-gatherers migrating in the 1200s, established their capital Tenochtitlan in 1325, growing to one of the largest cities with a population of around 200,000.

• Government and Economy: Operated under a tribute system, where conquered peoples provided goods and military service while local rulers maintained their positions.

  • The Aztec government was a theocracy led by the emperor, who was both a political leader and divine representative.

• Religion: The Aztec faith was polytheistic, involving many deities and rituals, including human sacrifices, believed to sustain the gods and balance the cosmos.

• Role of Women: Women engaged in weaving tribute cloth and held various positions in society, though primarily domestic.

• Decline: The Aztec Empire began to decline by the late 15th century due to technological limitations and overextension. Resentment among conquered peoples grew, leading to uprisings when Spanish forces arrived in 1519.

The Inca

• Empire Formation: Pachacuti, a tribal leader in the 15th century, unified Andean tribes into the expansive Incan Empire, which extended from Ecuador to Chile.

• Government Structure: Organized into four provinces, governed by loyal leaders. Unlike the Aztecs, Incas did not collect tribute from conquered peoples but required mandatory public service known as the mit'a system.

• Religion: Worship centered around the sun god Inti, with rulers considered divine representations. Ancestor veneration was significant, and religious ceremonies were critical in political decision-making.

• Achievements: The Incas developed a knotted string record-keeping system (quipu), sophisticated agricultural terraces using waru waru techniques, and an extensive road network for trade and military purposes.

• Decline: The arrival of Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro during a civil conflict weakened the Inca, facilitating the conquest in 1532, despite later resistance from outposts.

Topic 1.5: Developments in Africa

Ibn Battuta and Islam

• Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan scholar, highlighted the cultural dynamics of Sub-Saharan Africa in the 14th century. Well-versed in Islamic law, he advised Islamic governments and noted the blend of Islamic and indigenous traditions in Africa. Some areas resisted Islam, building intricate churches for defense, while southern regions had limited early contact with the religion.

Bantu Migrations and Political Structures

• Bantu migrations shaped Sub-Saharan Africa's political landscape. By 1000 AD, agriculture became prevalent, leading to complex kin-based networks rather than centralized governance, with chiefs mediating local conflicts.

The Hausa Kingdoms

• In modern Nigeria, the Hausa formed seven city-states before 1000 AD, connected by kinship but without central authority. They thrived through trans-Saharan trade, benefiting from military protection and later, the introduction of Islam by missionaries in the 14th century.

Key Kingdoms

• Ghana: A powerful kingdom between the Sahara and tropical forests, it peaked from the 8th to 11th centuries through gold and ivory trade with Muslim merchants.

• Mali: Emerged after Ghana's decline, known for Sundiata's successful trade relations and Mansa Musa's wealth display during his pilgrimage to Mecca.

• Zimbabwe: Known for stone architecture, it prospered from agriculture and gold trade, connecting with coastal city-states and evolving into a cultural hub.

• Ethiopia: Developed from the kingdom of Axum, it maintained a unique form of Christianity amidst the rising influence of Islam.

Social Structures

• Sub-Saharan Africa lacked strong central governments; communities were organized around kinship, age, and gender roles. Men held specialized skills, while women were primarily responsible for agriculture and domestic tasks.

Slavery

• Slavery, arising from war, debt, and crime, persisted in various forms. The Indian Ocean slave trade predated the Atlantic, with the Zanj Rebellion being a notable slave revolt.

Cultural Life

• African music, visual arts, and storytelling were crucial for cultural identity, often infused with spiritual significance. Griots, as storytellers, preserved history and provided counsel, while griottes empowered women through song and wisdom at social

Topic 1.6: Developments in Europe

As the power of the Roman Empire waned in the 5th and 6th centuries, Western Europe transitioned into the Middle Ages, commonly referred to as the medieval period. During this time, trade diminished, intellectual pursuits declined, and the unified Roman state fractured into smaller kingdoms that frequently engaged in territorial conflicts. In response to these challenges, European kings, lords, and peasants forged agreements to ensure mutual defense, with the Roman Catholic Church standing as the only enduring institution from Roman times until the 16th century.

Between 1000 and 1450, however, Europe witnessed a resurgence in trade and learning, marking the period known as the High Middle Ages. Scholars such as Peter Abelard greatly valued classical philosophers like Aristotle, and while he occasionally critiqued the Church, he remained a devoted believer.

Feudalism: Political and Social Systems

Medieval European civilization was distinguished by its decentralized political organization characterized by feudalism, a system based on reciprocal land exchanges for loyalty. The absence of a strong central authority necessitated protection from bandits, rival lords, and invaders, particularly Vikings from the north. At the heart of feudalism lay mutual obligations:

• A monarch, typically a king, allocated tracts of land called fiefs to lords in exchange for their loyalty and service.

• Lords distributed land to knights, who then became their vassals, pledging military assistance.

• Lords also granted land to peasants, who were obliged to cultivate the land and yield goods in return for protection and orders from the lord. Economic security was established for peasants, knights received equipment, and land was provided to those who served. Given that the economy was primarily agricultural, wealth was measured in land rather than currency.

The feudal system included a code of chivalry, a set of unwritten guidelines focused on honor, courtesy, and bravery, aimed at settling disputes. Although women were ideally safeguarded under this code, in reality, their rights were limited.

The Manorial System

Large estates known as manors illustrated economic self-sufficiency and security. Manors generated all necessities for their residents, which curtailed the need for trade. Many serfs remained oblivious to broader European events throughout their lifetimes, confined to these estates.

Manor grounds typically contained small villages, often featuring a church, shops, a mill, and wine presses, as well as housing for peasants called serfs. While not considered enslaved, serfs were tethered to the land; they required lordly permission for travel and marriage. In return for protection, they provided tribute through crops, labor, or occasionally coins. Offspring of serfs inherited their parents' status.

As climate and technology improved gradually, the amount of arable land increased, leading to enhanced agricultural efficiency later in the Middle Ages. The three-field system emerged, rotating crops across three fields:

• One field for wheat or rye for food production.

• A second field for legumes like peas, which enriched the soil with nitrogen.

• The last field was left fallow or unused annually, promoting sustainable farming practices.

Innovations such as windmills and new plow types contributed to these advances. Heavier plows were ideal for northern conditions, while lighter plows suited the drier southern regions, fostering population growth.

Political Trends in the Later Middle Ages

In the later Middle Ages, monarchies gained strength, overshadowing feudal lords by establishing bureaucratic systems and organized militaries that directly served royal authorities. The consolidation of power marked the beginning of modern European states, especially in England and France, led by figures like King Philip II. The first gathering of the Estates-General, comprising representatives from the clergy, nobility, and commoners, occurred under Philip IV. Despite its advisory role, the Estates-General's influence was limited, as the upper estates often escaped taxation, eroding its power over time.

The Holy Roman Empire

Otto I, crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 962, revived the title once held by Charlemagne. His successors navigated conflicts with the papacy regarding lay investiture during the 11th and 12th centuries, which was ultimately resolved through the Concordat of Worms in 1122, granting autonomy to the Church. The Holy Roman Empire thrived until the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) severely weakened it, leading to its effective dissolution by Napoleon in 1806.

Norman England

The Normans, descendants of Vikings, settled in Normandy and conquered England in 1066 under William the Conqueror, establishing a tightly organized feudal system. The blend of Norman and Anglo-Saxon cultures initiated the emergence of modern English identity. Noble objections to the overreach of Norman power led to the 1215 signing of the Magna Carta, which mandated the king to uphold certain rights, such as trial by jury. This era also saw the establishment of England's first Parliament in 1265, enhancing the political rights of nobles, but leaving broader societal issues largely unchanged.

The Hundred Years’ War

From 1337 to 1453, tensions between England and France ignited a series of battles known as the Hundred Years’ War. The innovative use of the longbow by English archers secured early victories, though, by the conflict's end, England maintained only Calais as its French stronghold. The war fostered national identities among soldiers and showcased the growing use of gunpowder weaponry, altering Medieval warfare.

Christians versus Muslims

As the Normans conquered Sicily from Muslims in the Middle Ages, the need to reclaim the Iberian Peninsula culminated in the Reconquista, completed in 1492. This long-standing struggle reflected broader tensions between Christian and Muslim forces.

Roman Catholic Church during the Middle Ages

The Great Schism in 1054 split Christianity into Roman Catholic and Orthodox branches, with the former largely dominating Europe. The Church emerged as a unifying power amid fragmented political states, providing community literacy and services. Many common people turned to the Church for education, given their majority lack of literacy.

The Church also established the first universities, shaping education and civil discourse, given that most philosophers and artists of the time were tied to ecclesiastical institutions.

Church and State

The Church maintained significant power within feudal society. Lords could be pressured by Church authorities; for instance, local bishops could withhold religious services from a lord's serfs, coercing compliance. Bishops, bound to the Pope, were instrumental in regional governance, guiding local priests and fostering Church unity.

Monasticism

Despite some clergy choosing solitude in monastic life, they remained integrated into the economic framework of Western Europe, similar to manors, with their farms and protective functions. Women could pursue nunnery, achieving influence in religious life. However, the corruption and wealth of certain monasteries in the 14th and 15th centuries eventually led to reform movements, such as those initiated by Martin Luther, destabilizing the Church's unity.

The Christian Crusades

Crusades aimed not only to regain the Holy Land but were deeply embedded in socio-economic dynamics of 11th-century Europe. Growing noble discontent drove demands for military campaigns, as merchants sought better trade routes. The initial Crusades were marked by strong Church influence, promising spiritual rewards for combatants. Notably, the First Crusade succeeded in capturing Jerusalem in 1099, though control oscillated, notably falling back to Muslims under Saladin in 1187.

Later crusades, particularly the Fourth Crusade, deviated dramatically from their goals, resulting in the sacking of Constantinople instead of pursuing the Holy Land.

Economic and Social Change

The changes of the Crusades contributed to a shift in European economies, transitioning from localized self-sufficiency to greater engagement with wider markets. Influential accounts from travelers like Marco Polo enhanced curiosity about Asia, inspiring explorations in trade and mapping.

Social Change

The rise in long-distance trade nurtured a burgeoning middle class, known as bourgeoisie, including shopkeepers and artisans. This class gained social status, outshining traditional noble and clergy roles in emerging urban landscapes.

However, the population of cities began to decrease due to the Black Death, a catastrophic plague during the 14th century that wiped out a significant portion of the population, causing labor shortages that empowered surviving serfs. The Little Ice Age halted urban growth, exacerbating agricultural failures and promoting unrest among the populace.

Jews and Muslims

Amid fluctuating societal dynamics, Jews in medieval Europe expanded their communities, moving northward in face of antisemitism and finding roles as moneylenders due to restrictions on entrepreneurship applied to Christians. Anti-Jewish sentiment saw waves of expulsion throughout Europe, notably in England, France, Spain, and Portugal, while Muslims faced similar fates, especially during the Spanish expulsion of 1492.

Gender Roles

Women’s rights were challenged in this patriarchal era, marked by limited educational access and controlled societal roles. Nevertheless, some women found pathways to influence through religious orders or participation in artisan guilds; yet, they often lacked property rights. In contrast, women in Islamic societies often experienced greater equality compared to their European counterparts, especially in Africa and Southeast Asia.

Renaissance

The Renaissance period, spurred by trade expansion and the rise of an affluent merchant class, ignited cultural creativity across Europe. This era was defined by a renewed interest in classical Greek and Roman arts and literature. The development of Gutenberg's movable-type printing press in the 15th century transformed the dissemination of knowledge, promoting literacy and new ideas.

Humanism became a prevalent ideology, focusing on individual experience and secular thought, contrasting sharply with previous religious dogma. The Southern Renaissance flourished under church patronage, illustrated by Dante’s Divine Comedy, while the Northern Renaissance embraced vernacular literature, characterized by Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales.

The Origins of Russia

During the late Middle Ages, Russian territories, notably Kievan Rus, thrived through trade and cultural exchanges

Topic 1.7: Comparison in the Period from c. 1200 to c. 1450

• Growth of Centralized States: From c. 1200 to c. 1450, major civilizations expanded while smaller states declined, leading to stronger centralized powers. The Mongols established the largest land-based empire, complementing the rise of Islam in regions like West Africa and the Middle East, which served as a foundation for state-building, while trade heavily influenced Europe.

• Emergence of New Empires:

  • The Song Dynasty in China continued its advancement in technology and culture.

  • The Abbasid Caliphate faced fragmentation due to invasions, leading to the rise of new Muslim states in Africa, the Middle East, and Spain.

  • South and Southeast Asia saw the Chola Kingdom and Vijayanagar Empire emerge through trade, contrasting with the land-based nature of the Delhi Sultanate.

  • In Africa, the Mali Empire grew more powerful than Ghana, while in the Americas, the Aztecs formed a military-based tributary empire and the Incas used the mit’a system for governance.

  • Feudal ties diminished in Europe, shifting towards centralized governance mainly in England and France, whereas Japan experienced increased decentralization and feudal structures.

• Religion’s Influence on State-Building: Religion was integral in unifying diverse populations, particularly in Islamic realms, where shared beliefs and Arabic served to legitimize rulers across various regions.

  • In China, Confucianism underpinned bureaucratic governance, notably during the Song Dynasty, shaping law enforcement and governmental structure. Neo-Confucianism also influenced Korea and Japan.

  • In Europe, the Roman Catholic Church's position fluctuated between aiding and rivaling emerging states, providing an organization framework during the Middle Ages.

• Spread of Religions: Major faiths like Islam, Buddhism, and Christianity engaged in missionary efforts, leading to local religious practices waning, particularly in Africa, Southeast Asia, and East Asia. The arrival of Islam in South Asia increased due to military campaigns, yet Hinduism maintained predominance, fostering cycles of conflict and coexistence.

• Trade's Role in State-Building: Increased trade enhanced cross-cultural exchanges, aiding technological advancements. In China, innovations like Champa rice amplified agricultural productivity, supporting urban growth and manufacturing during the Song Dynasty.

  • The invention of paper manufacturing in China eventually improved literacy across Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, fueling knowledge-sharing and scientific progress.

  • Relations between Europe and Asia varied from conquest to commerce, impacting European state-building with gradual integration from around 1200 to 1450.

• Nomadic Peoples' Impact: Nomadic groups, particularly the Mongols, significantly impacted state-building throughout this period, establishing political stability that boosted trade. This led to cultural exchanges between Europe and Asia, marking a renaissance in interactions.

  • Similarly, Turkish groups created dominant empires in the Mediterranean and Persia, although separate from the Mongolian unification approach.

• Patriarchy and Religion: Most societies retained patriarchal structures, with religion often reinforcing male dominance. While some religious communities provided opportunities for women, such as convents in Europe and certain South Asian cultures, the tradition of foot binding in China restricted women's roles and independence further in society

Unit 2: Networks of Exchange from c. 1200 to c. 1450

Topic 2.1: The Silk Roads

Overview

• The Silk Roads revived by the 8th and 9th centuries after falling into disuse, becoming vital for interregional trade in the 14th and 15th centuries.

• Increased demand for luxury goods in Europe and Africa spurred trade.

• Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans scaled up textile and porcelain production for export.

• Caravans improved safety and practicality in travel; paper money developed by Chinese helped manage trade.

Causes of the Growth of Exchange Networks

• Impact of the Crusades: Lords and their knights brought back fabrics and spices, expanding networks despite threats from the Ottoman Turks.

• Desire for Luxury Goods: Europe sought Chinese silk and rhubarb, increasing global trade links.

• Arab Merchants’ Role: Post-classical revival in the 8th-9th centuries revitalized trade via the Abbasid Empire.

  • Tang China contributed innovations like compasses, gunpowder, and increased exports of tea, silk, and porcelain.

Rise of New Empires and Trade Revival

• The rise of the Mongol Empire significantly impacted trade expansion, unifying trade routes under a secure authority that respected merchants.

• Mongol rule improved travel safety by enhancing roads and reducing banditry, fostering new trade channels across regions.

Improvements in Transportation Technologies

• Caravan Travel: Travelers learned that traveling in caravans increased safety; innovations enabled better saddle designs for camels.

• Naval Advances: During the Han Dynasty, advances, such as the magnetic compass and improved rudders, could navigate maritime trade, with the Chinese junk design being pivotal.

Cities and Oases Along the Silk Roads

• Kashgar: Key point of trade and cultural exchanges at a juncture where northern and southern Silk Road routes crossed. Flourishing market with textiles and crafts due to fertile land sourced from rivers.

• Samarkand: Known for cultural exchanges and a diverse religious background, a vital stop on trade routes between China and the Mediterranean.

• Caravanserai: Established inns to facilitate trade and rest along the Silk Roads, strategically placed about 100 miles apart for camel travel convenience.

Commercial Innovations

• Financial Systems: China’s use of fying cash simplified transactions by allowing merchants to deposit and withdraw paper money at different locations, setting the stage for modern banking.

• Hanseatic League: A commercial alliance in the 13th century controlling Northern European trade, facilitating the growth of economic ties over the Baltic and North Seas, lasting until the mid-17th century.

Increased Demand for Luxury Goods

• Heightened demand led to increased production of silk, textiles, and porcelain, resulting in proto-industrialization in China as craftsmanship expanded to meet global needs.

Topic 2.2: The Mongol Empire and the Modern World

Overview of the Mongol Empire

• The Mongols, originating in Central Asia, greatly impacted Eurasia in the 13th century, creating chaos but also fostering interregional connections.

• Various accounts, such as that of Matthew Paris, emphasize their brutal reputation, though they also enabled remarkable exchanges unseen in a millennium.

The Mongols and Their Environment

• In the 12th century, the Mongols were a collection of clans subsisting on herding and hunting north of the Gobi Desert.

• They became skilled horse riders and valued courage in warfare, interacting with nearby tribes like the Tatars and Jurchen, and coveted luxury goods available along the Silk Roads.

Genghis Khan

• Temujin, born in 1162, united Mongol clans through alliances and strategic marriages, eventually being elected khan in 1206 and taking the name Genghis Khan.

• He earned a fearsome reputation through brutal conquest, attacking the Jin Empire in 1210 and executing harsh punishments against resistance.

• His conquests extended from the North China Sea to Persia by 1227.

Military Strategies of Genghis Khan

• Mongolian forces boasted proficient horse riders and disciplined soldiers, organized through an efficient command structure.

• To maintain communication, a messenger system was implemented, aiding effective military operations and tactics like feigned retreats.

• Captured artisans and skilled workers were integrated into the Mongol military for constructing improved siege weapons.

Pax Mongolica

• The era known as the Pax Mongolica (13th-14th century) saw Genghis Khan establishing a capital at Karakorum and instituting policies of religious tolerance.

• This peace protected and invigorated trade routes, enhancing intercultural exchanges and bolstering economic linkage across Asia and Europe.

• The Mongols established a form of centralized governance with unified laws across their territories.

Expansion of the Mongolian Empire

• Genghis Khan’s grandsons established khanates that expanded the empire further.

• Batu, leading the Golden Horde, invaded Russia in 1236, employing indirect rule through local leaders while extracting tribute.

• Russia’s resistance grew, leading to the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380, marking the beginning of the decline of Mongol influence.

Hulegu and the Islamic Territories

• Hulegu, another grandson, led the Mongols into the Abbasid territories and destroyed Baghdad in 1258, further demonstrating the Mongols’ reach.

• His realm, the Il-khanate, became a kingdom where local Persians managed governance while Hulegu and most Mongols converted to Islam.

Kublai Khan and the Yuan Dynasty

• Kublai Khan, another grandson, focused on conquering China and established the Yuan Dynasty in 1271, blending Mongolian and Chinese governance styles.

• He promoted religious tolerance, benefitting economically from cultural exchanges and improved trade.

• However, dissatisfaction among Chinese populations grew due to alienating policies against native practices.

Decline of Mongol Power

• Following failed military campaigns starting in 1274, internal strife and external pressures led to the decline of Mongol influence.

• The rise of the Ming Dynasty in 1368 signaled the end of Mongol rule in China, paralleled by loss of power elsewhere, including the Golden Horde.

Long-Term Impact of Mongolian Invasions

• The Mongols created the largest continuous land empire, with far-reaching effects on trade, culture, and military practices.

• Their conquests accelerated interregional trade and cultural exchanges while also facilitating the spread of the Black Death.

• Mongol military innovations led to transformations in European warfare, contributing to the end of knightly dominance and walled city defenses.

Topic 2.3: Exchange in the Indian Ocean

Overview

• The Indian Ocean was a significant center for trade and cultural exchange during the Postclassical Era, most prominently through the activities of Muslim merchants.

• The Hadith encourages Muslims to travel and learn, supporting the concept of Dar al-Islam as the first global empire connecting societies from North Africa to South Asia.

Causes of Expanded Exchange

• Location: South Asia's central location benefited from trade in the Indian Ocean Basin.

• Spread of Islam: The expansion of Islam connected various cities, enhancing trade opportunities between East Africa, Southeast Asia, and South Asia.

• Demand for Specialized Products: Different regions offered specific goods, increasing trade:

  • India: High-quality fabrics, particularly cotton; intricately woven carpets; tanned leather; pepper.

  • Spice Islands (Modern-day Malaysia and Indonesia): Nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, cardamom.

  • Swahili Coast: Ivory, gold, and enslaved people from cities like Mombasa and Kilwa.

  • China: Exports of silks and porcelain.

  • Southwest Asia: Horses, figs, and dates.

Trade and Enslaved People

• Long-Running Slave Trade: Enslaved individuals from eastern Africa were sold in various regions, including the Middle East and India.

• Fate of Enslaved Individuals: Conditions varied significantly compared to those in the Atlantic slave trade, allowing for community building, marriage rights, and roles in urban labor.

Maritime Innovations

• Knowledge of Monsoons: Essential for timing voyages; merchants adapted to seasonal winds.

• Advances in Maritime Technology: Included the use of triangular lateen sails and the stern rudder, leading to stable ship designs like the wooden dhow.

• Astrolabe: Improved navigation allowing sailors to measure latitude.

Growth of States

• The Indian Ocean trade facilitated the emergence of powerful city-states like Malacca, which imposed fees on maritime traffic and extended trade influence until the Portuguese invasion in 1511.

Diasporic Communities

• Cultural Exchange: Merchants often settled in new regions, marrying local women and establishing cultural ties, leading to the spread of Islam in southern Asia through intermarriage rather than conquest.

Response to Increased Demand

• Market Expansion: Increased demand necessitated more efficient production techniques, leading to the evolution of states that managed trade customs and ports.

• Gujarat: Became a key trade hub, with customs revenue surpassing that of some European states.

Swahili City-States

• Thriving centers of trade linked to the Indian Ocean, exchanging local resources for goods from distant lands, leading to architectural and cultural advancements.

  • City-states included Kilwa, Mombasa, and Zanzibar, rich in resources such as ivory and gold.

Cultural Transfers

• Zheng He’s Voyages: Demonstrated the intensity of cultural and trade exchanges; voyages displayed Ming might and sought tribute while fostering trade relations in regions like Africa and Southeast Asia.

• Controversy arose over these voyages due to Confucian values that conflicted with expanded trade and interaction.

Conclusion

The exchange dynamics in the Indian Ocean during this period not only fostered trade and economic growth but also created significant cultural interactions that shaped societies across regions. The enduring effects can still be observed today in cultural practices, languages, and trade routes.

Topic 2.4: Trans-Saharan Trade Routes

Overview

• Geography: The Sahara Desert occupies 3.6 million square miles, with only about 800 square miles being fertile oases.

• Historical Context: While populated East African Coast existed prior to Islam, the Sahara saw increased trade with the arrival of Muslim merchants in the 7th and 8th centuries, especially during the rise of empires like Mali in the early 1200s.

Trade Dynamics

• Commodities: Africans traded gold, ivory, hides, and enslaved people for Arab and Berber salt, cloth, paper, and horses.

• Transportation Innovations: Muslim traders utilized camels for extensive travel across the Sahara. Camels replaced horses and donkeys due to their adaptation to arid climates and ability to carry heavy loads with specialized saddles developed for trade.

Major Trade Cities and Features

• Key Trade Cities: Timbuktu and Gao became centers of Muslim life and learning in Mali.

• Trade Routes: By the end of the 8th century, trans-Saharan trade routes became well-known, connecting various cultures and expanding trade networks.

• Growth of Mali Empire: Mali prospered from gold trade, taxing nearly all trade entering West Africa and establishing a thriving economy.

Political and Economic Effects

• Empire Expansion: The economic growth required better administration, leading rulers to establish known currencies (cowrie shells, gold, etc.) and protect trade routes.

• Sundiata's Legacy: Sundiata rose to power, expanding trade relations and collecting tribute from various regions.

Prominent Figures

• Mansa Musa: Grand-nephew of Sundiata, known for his opulent pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324, which showcased Mali's wealth, established religious schools, and promoted Islam.

• Cultural Impact: Despite declining power after Mansa Musa's reign, Islam remained significant in West Africa due to established trade networks and cultural exchanges.

Topic 2.5: Cultural Consequences of Connectivity

whether by caravan through the Sahara or Gobi deserts or by junk

or dhow on the China Sea or Indian Ocean, goods, people, and ideas

traveled with relative freedom through the networks of exchange in Afro￾Eurasia in the years between c. 1200 and c. 1450. One reason for this

free exchange was the stability of the Mongol Empire and the protection

it offered merchants and travelers. The empire reached well past former

boundaries, incorporating new people, goods, and ideas within its

authority. Technological developments, such as gunpowder and paper

from China, were diffused by trade. Literary and artistic interactions and

cultural exchanges were documented by travelers such as Marco Polo

and Ibn Battuta, who told of the wonders they saw and the extraordinary

people they met. The known world became a larger place.

Religious, Cultural, and Technological

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The diffusion of different religions between c. 1200 and c. 1450 had

varying effects. In some cases, the arrival of a new religion served to

unify people and provide justifcation for a kingdom’s leadership. It often

also infuenced the literary and artistic culture of areas to which it spread,

where themes, subjects, and styles were inspired by the spreading religion.

In other places, it either fused or coexisted with the native religions.

The interactions resulting from increased trade also led to technological

innovations that helped shape the era. ,nfuence oI %uGGhisP on (ast $sian Culture Buddhism came to China

from its birthplace in India via the Silk Roads, and the 7th-century Buddhist

monk Xuanzang helped make it popular. Monks related Buddhism to familiar

Daoist principles, and in time Buddhist doctrines fused with elements of

Daoist traditions to create the syncretic faith Chan Buddhism, also known as

Zen Buddhism. Although some leaders in China did not want China’s native

religions diminished as a result of the spread of Buddhism, Chan Buddhism

remained popular among ordinary Chinese citizens. Under the Song Dynasty

(960–1279), many Confucians among the scholar gentry began to adopt its

ideals into their daily lives. The development of printing had made Buddhist

scriptures widely available to the Confucian scholar gentry. Buddhist writers

also infuenced Chinese literature by writing in the vernacular rather than the

formal language of Confucian scholars, a practice that became widespread. Japan and Korea, countries in China’s orbit, also adopted Buddhism,

along with Confucianism. In Korea, the educated elite studied Confucian

classics, while Buddhist doctrine attracted the peasants. Neo-Confucianism

was another syncretic faith that originated in China, frst appearing in the

Tang Dynasty but developing further in the Song Dynasty. Neo-Confucianism

fused rational thought with the abstract ideas of Daoism and Buddhism and

became widespread in Japan and 9ietnam. It also became .orea’s offcial state

ideology. Spread of Hinduism and Buddhism Through trade, the Indian religions

of Hinduism and Buddhism made their way to Southeast Asia as well. The

sea-based Srivijaya Empire on Sumatra was a Hindu kingdom, while the

later Majapahit Kingdom on Java was Buddhist. The South Asian land-based

Sinhala dynasties in Sri Lanka became centers of Buddhist study with many

monasteries. Buddhism’s infuence was so strong under the Sinhala dynasties

that Buddhist priests often advised monarchs on matters of government. (See

Topic 1.3.)

The Khmer Empire in present-day Cambodia, also known as the Angkor

Kingdom, was the most successful kingdom in Southeast Asia. The royal

monuments at Angkor Thom are evidence of both Hindu and Buddhist cultural

infuences on Southeast Asia. Hindu artwork and sculptures of Hindu gods

adorned the city. Later, when Khmer rulers had become Buddhist, they added

Buddhist sculptures and artwork onto buildings while keeping the Hindu

artwork.

Spread of Islam Through merchants, missionaries, and conquests, Islam

spread over a wide swath of Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. The chart

below summarizes some of the cultural infuences of that expansion. Scientifc anG 7echnoloJical ,nnoYations Along with religion, science

and technology traveled the trade routes. Islamic scholars translated Greek

literary classics into Arabic, saving the works of Aristotle and other Greek

thinkers from oblivion. Scholars also brought back mathematics texts from India and techniques for papermaking from China. They studied medicine

from ancient Greeks, Mesopotamians, and Egyptians, making advances in

hospital care, including surgery. (See Topic 1.2.)

Improvements in agricultural effciency, such as the use of Champa

rice, spread from India to Vietnam and China. With a reliable food supply,

the population grew, as did cities and industries, such as the production of

porcelain, silk, steel, and iron. Papermaking reached Europe from China in

the 13th century and along with printing technology helped lead to a rise in

literacy.

Seafaring technology improved with lateen sails, the stern rudder, the

astrolabe, and the magnetic compass as Chinese, Indian, and Southwest

Asians expanded their knowledge of astronomy and other aspects of the natural

world. Production of gunpowder and guns spread from China and infuenced

warfare as well.

Thanks, in part, to the writing of Marco Polo, historians have a good picture

of the city of Hangzhou in China. It shows how trade supported urbanization.

Hangzhou was large—it was home to about one million people—but other

Chinese cities were larger. Chang’an had about two million people. However,

Hangzhou was the center of culture in southern China, the home of poets such

as Lu Yu and Xin Qiji, and other writers and artists. Located at the southern

end of the Grand Canal, it was also a center of trade. Like other important

cities of the era, such as Novgorod in Russia, Timbuktu in Africa, and Calicut

in India, the city grew and prospered as its merchants exchanged goods. This

trade brought diversity to Hangzhou, including a thriving community of Arabs.

Other cities on the trade routes that grew and thrived included Samarkand

and Kashgar. (See Topic 2.1.) They were both known as centers of Islamic

scholarship, bustling markets, and sources for fresh water and plentiful food

for merchants traveling the Silk Roads. Declining Cities Kashgar, however, declined after a series of conquests

by nomadic invaders and in 1389–90 was ravaged by Tamerlane. (See Topic

2.2.) Another once-thriving city, the heavily walled Constantinople in present￾day Turkey, also suffered a series of traumatic setbacks. Mutinous Crusader

armies weakened Constantinople after an attack in the Fourth Crusade in 1204

(see Topic 1.6), and in 1346 and 1349, the bubonic plague killed about half of

the people in Constantinople. After a 5-day seige, the city fnally fell to the

Ottomans in 1453, an event some historians believe marks the end of the High

Middle Ages. Effects of the Crusades Knowledge of the world beyond Western Europe

increased as Crusaders encountered both the Byzantine and Islamic cultures. The

encounters also increased demand in Europe for newfound wares from the East. In

opening up to global trade, however, Western Europeans also opened themselves

to disease. The plague, referred to as the Black Death, was introduced to Europe

by way of trading routes. A major epidemic broke out between 1347 and 1351.

Additional outbreaks occurred over the succeeding decades. As many as 25

million people in Europe may have died from the plague. With drastically reduced

populations, economic activity declined in Europe. In particular, a shortage of

people to work on the land had lasting effects on the feudal system. Also, exposure

to new ideas from Byzantium and the Muslim world would contribute to the

Renaissance and the subsequent rise of secularism. Travelers’ Tales

As exchange networks intensifed and literacy spread as a result of paper and

printing technology, an increasing number of travelers within Afro-Eurasia

wrote about their journeys for eager readers. Marco Polo In the late 13th century, Marco Polo, an Italian native from

Venice, visited the court of Kublai Khan. (See Topic 2.2.) Chinese cities

impressed Polo. After Polo returned to Italy in 1295, he wrote a book about

his travels. However, many Europeans refused to believe his descriptions

of China’s size, wealth, and wonders. Only when other Europeans followed

Polo’s route to China did people widely accept that China was prosperous

and innovative. Polo’s captivating descriptions of the customs of the people

he met intrigued Europeans. Polo wrote extensively about the high levels of

urbanization he saw in the 13th century. Polo’s point of view as a merchant

kept him focused on trade-related matters.

They use paper money as currency. The men as well as the women are fair￾skinned and handsome. Most of them always dress themselves in silk, as a

result of the vast quantities of that material produced in Hangzhou, exclusive

of what the merchants import from other provinces.

Ibn Battuta He was just 21 years old, Ibn Battuta (1304–1353), a

Muslim scholar from Morocco, set out to see the world he read about.

I set out alone, having neither fellow-traveller in whose companionship I

might fnd cheer, nor caravan whose part I might join, but swayed by an

overmastering impulse within me and a desire long-cherished in my bosom

to visit these illustrious sanctuaries.

Over 30 years, Ibn Battuta traveled through Central Asia, Southeast Asia,

South Asia, China, Spain, North Africa, and Mali, mainly to Muslim lands.

After telling his tales to the Sultan of Morocco, Battuta was told to “dictate

an account of the cities which he had seen in his travel, and of the interesting

events which had clung to his memory, and that he should speak of those

whom he had met of the rulers of countries, of their distinguished men of

learning, and of their pious saints.” His book A Gift to Those Who Contemplate

the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling provides a wealth of detail

about the places he visited and their cultures. Unlike Polo, Battuta had the

point of view of a Muslim devoted to his faith. His journey was in large part

to learn as much as he could about Islam and its people and accomplishments.

Margery Kempe English mystic Margery Kempe (c. 1373–c. 1440),

whose The Book of Margery Kempe was one of the earliest autobiographies

in English, if not the frst, could neither read nor write. She dictated her book

to scribes who wrote down her descriptions of her pilgrimages to Jerusalem,

Rome, Germany, and Spain. She does relate details of her travel experiences,

such as being so overcome by the sight of Jerusalem as she approached it that

she nearly fell off her donkey. However, her book is also signifcant because it

is a frsthand account of a middle-class medieval woman’s life. .empe conveys

both the intense spiritual visions and feelings of her mystical experiences and

the trials of everyday life for a woman with 14 children.

Topic 2.6: Environmental Consequences of Connectivity

Although trade networks enabled the spread of novel agricultural products,

such as the introduction of certain citrus fruits to the Mediterranean basin, the

most dramatic environmental consequence of increased commerce was not

food, but rather disease. Bubonic plague or “Black Death” swept from Central

Asia; struck in China, India, Persia, and Egypt; and arrived in Europe in 1347.

The epidemic is estimated to have killed from 75 to 200 million people in

Eurasia and peaked in Europe from 1347 to 1351. Boccaccio, whose famous

work The Decameron was inspired by living through the plague, described the

horrors he saw.

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Along with luxury goods, spices, textiles, and religions, merchants in some

places introduced crops where they had not grown before. The new crops often

had an impact on land use and population growth and distribution. In some

areas, people found ways to sustain abundant production; in others, overuse of

the land led to environmental degradation.

Migration of Crops Few crops had as signifcant an impact as the quick￾ripening Champa rice, which was introduced to the Champa states by Vietnam,

a Hindu state, and then offered to the Chinese as tribute. Because of the Hindu

infuence on Champa in present-day central 9ietnam, some scholars believe

Champa rice may have originated in India. It was drought-resistant, food￾resistant, and capable of yielding two crops a year. It was widely distributed in

China to meet the needs of the growing population and in turn contributed to

the population growth.

It also had an impact on land use. Through terraced farming in the uplands

and paddies in the lowlands, Champa rice was grown in many parts of China

where once land was thought unusable for growing rice. Nonetheless, as the population of China grew, people tended to migrate southward to the original

rice growing region, contributing to the growth of cities.

Indonesian seafarers traveling across the Indian Ocean had introduced

bananas to Sub-Saharan Africa. The nutrition-rich food led to a spike in

population. Many Indonesians settled on the island of Madagascar. Bananas

allowed the Bantu-speaking peoples (see Prologue) with their metallurgy

skills and farming techniques to migrate to places where yams—a traditional

food source—did not easily grow. To grow bananas, farmers increased land for

cultivation, which enriched diets and led to population growth.

As caliphs conquered lands beyond the Arabian Peninsula, they spread

Islam, the Arabic language, and the cultivation of cotton, sugar, and citrus

crops. New foods were also available at the markets along the trade routes.

The markets of Samarkand, for example, introduced new fruits and vegetables,

as well as rice and citrus products from Southwest Asia, to Europe. Europeans’

demand for sugar would become so high that it became a key factor in the

massive use of enslaved people in the Americas in the 1500s and after. Environmental Degradation Increases in population put pressure on

resources. For example, overgrazing outside of Great Zimbabwe was so

severe that people had to abandon the city in the late 1400s. (See Topic 1.5.)

In feudal Europe, overuse of farm land and deforestation led to soil erosion,

reducing agricultural production. The Little Ice Age (c. 1300–c. 1800) also

contributed to a decrease in agricultural products. Environmental degradation

was a factor in the decline of the Mayans in the Americas as well.

Spread of Epidemics through Exchange Networks

While scholars in Dar al-Islam and India were developing advances in medical

understanding and treatment, no knowledge at the time could have prevented

the spread of deadly infectious diseases that accompanied trade. The Mongol

conquests helped to transmit the feas that carried the bubonic plague, termed

the Black Death, from southern China to Central Asia, and from there to

Southeast Asia and Europe. Some historians believe the caravanserai that

housed people and animals together may have contributed to the spread of the

disease, since the animals likely carried infected feas.

The Black Death had a tremendous impact on Europe, killing one-third

of the population there in a few years. With fewer workers, agricultural

production continued its decline. However, the reduced number of workers

led to a new relationship between workers and those they worked for: each

person’s labor became more valuable, so workers could demand higher wages.

This shift helped lay the groundwork for the economic changes that developed

as feudalism declined.

The Black Death led to similar loss of life in other areas, including North

Africa, China, and Central Asia. About 25 million Chinese and other Asians

died between 1332 and 1347. South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa were spared

because there were few trading ports in those regions.

Topic 2.7: Comparison of Economic Exchange

Calicut was known as the “City of Spices,” a market city where merchants

traded their goods for pepper and cinnamon from India and a variety of goods

from other areas as well. In some ways, such as its ability to provide security

and the diversity of people who patronized the markets, Calicut was like other

big trading cities along the well-traveled trade routes. In other ways, such as

the type of currency it used and how the polity, or governmental unit, made

money on trade, it differed from trading cities elsewhere. The similarities

and differences among trading cities were also refected in the larger trading

networks.

Similarities Among Networks of Exchange

Several major trading networks connected people in Africa, Europe, and Asia

in the years between c. 1200 and c. 1450:

• the Silk Roads through the Gobi Desert and mountain passes in China

and Central Asia to Southwest Asia and Europe, on which merchants

tended to specialize in luxury goods

• the monsoon-dependent trade routes in the Indian Ocean linking East

Asia with Southeast Asia, South Asia, and Southwest Asia, on which

merchants exchanged goods too heavy to transport by land

• the trans-Saharan trade routes from North Africa and the Mediterranean

Basin across the desert to West and East Africa, on which merchants

traded salt from North Africa with gold from the kingdoms south of

the desert While each exchange network had its unique characteristics, all were similar

in their origins, purpose, and effects.

Origins Interregional trade began well before the common era as agrarian

cultures consolidated into stable settlements. The trade that fourished between

c. 1200 and c. 1450 built on the routes these early traders—and conquerors—

frst traced. As kingdoms and empires expanded, so did the trade routes they

controlled and traveled.

The Postclassical trading networks also needed the stability of established

states to grow and expand. Stable kingdoms, caliphates, city-states, or empires

assured merchants that the routes and the merchants themselves would

be protected—which is why the wealthy merchants in Calicut could walk

away from their cargoes knowing they would not be stolen. Stable polities

also supported the technological upgrades that made trade more proftable²

nautical equipment such as the magnetic compass and lateen sail, high-yielding

strains of crops, and saddles to allow for the carriage of heavy loads of goods.

Purpose The trading networks shared an overall economic purpose: to

exchange what people were able to grow or produce for what they wanted,

needed, or could use to trade for other items. In other words, their purpose

was primarily economic. However, as you have read, people exchanged

much more than just products. Diplomats and missionaries also traveled the

trade routes, negotiating alliances and proselytizing for converts. Together,

merchants, diplomats, and missionaries exchanged ways of life as well as

economic goods.

Effects All the exchange networks also experienced similar effects.

Because of the very nature of a network—which can be described as a fabric

of cords crossing at regular distances, knotted for strength at the crossings—

the trade routes all gave rise to trading cities, the “knots” that held the network

together. The growth of trading cities gave rise to another effect of the trade

networks: centralization. Malacca, for example, grew wealthy from the fees

levied on ships and cargoes passing through the Strait of Malacca. To prevent

piracy, Malacca used its wealth in part to develop a strong navy—an endeavor

that required centralized planning. Trading cities along each of the trade routes

underwent similar developments, using their wealth to keep the routes and the

cities safe.

Another aspect of trade in the cities that encouraged centralization was

the desire for a standardized currency. Widely accepted currencies sped up

transactions and enabled merchants to measure the value of products. The trading networks also had unique currencies and commercial practices.

For example, at one time silk was not only a commodity but also a currency.

In places in Southeast Asia, tin ingots were used as a currency standard. West

African states used cowrie shells as currency.

In time, however, states shifted to a money economy based on gold and

other metal coins. To make commerce less bulky, the Chinese invented “fying

cash” (see Topic 2.1) and established the precursors of banks, including the

practice of extending credit. Social Implications of Networks of Exchange

The rising demand for luxury goods spurred efforts to make production more

effcient than it had been. China went through a period of proto-industrialization

as it sought to meet the demand for iron, steel, and porcelain. (See Topic 1.1.)

New business practices, such as partnerships for sharing the risk of investment,

began to emerge.

The production of goods such as textiles and porcelain in China and

spices in South and Southeast Asia increased to meet demands. As the amount

of goods increased, the volume of trade on maritime trade routes began to

supersede that of the overland trade routes. Larger ships were needed as well

as improved navigational knowledge and technology.

Labor The demand for labor rose along with the growing demand for

products. The forms of labor from earlier periods continued—free peasant

farmers, craft workers or artisans in cottage industries, people forced to work

to pay off debts, and people forced into labor through enslavement. Trade

in enslaved people was common along the Indian Ocean and trans-Saharan

routes.

Large-scale projects—irrigation canals, military defenses, great

buildings—called for the work of thousands of organized laborers. Kinship

ties often played a role in coordinating these large-scale projects. An observer

in the Vijayanagara Empire in South India in the 1300s describes the work of

completing a giant reservoir: “In the tank I saw so many people at work that there must have been ffteen or

twenty thousand men, looking like ants, so that you could not see the ground

on which they walked, so many there were; this tank the king portioned out

amongst his captains, each of whom had the duty of seeing that the people

placed under him did their work, and that the tank was fnished and brought

to completion.”

Narrative of Domingo Paes (1520–22)

Social and Gender Structures The typical social structures during the

period between 1200 and 150 were still defned by class or caste, and societies,

with rare exceptions, remained patriarchies. There were, however, areas where

women exercised more power and infuence. For example, even though the

vast Mongol Empire was a patriarchy, Mongol women had somewhat more

freedom than women in most other parts of Afro-Eurasia. Mongol women

moved about freely and refused the burka from the West and foot binding from

the East. Women were also often top advisors to the great khan.

In Europe, women worked as farmers and artisans, and they had their

own guilds. In Southeast Asia, women were skilled in the practices of the

marketplace, operating and controlling marketplaces as representatives of

powerful families. Outside of these limited areas, however, women within

other major regions still experienced far fewer opportunities and freedoms

than men in virtually all aspects of life.

Environmental Processes The interconnections that spurred so much

vibrant economic and cultural exchange also led to a steep population decline

as merchants, diplomats, and missionaries transferred the bubonic plague and

other infectious diseases along the trade routes. The plague, named the Black

Death, contributed to the decline of once-great cities, such as Constantinople.

Most believe that at least a third of Europe’s population died during this

period. China experienced outbreaks in the 1330s and 1350s, causing tens of

millions of deaths.

Changes in trade networks led to cultural diffusion and the development

of educational centers in cities such as Canton, Samarkand, Timbuktu,

Cairo, and Venice. Political instability and increased agriculture strained the

environment. For example, soil erosion from deforestation, or overgrazing,

forced growing populations to migrate to other areas.

Unit 3: Land-Based Empires

3.1: European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires Expand

From its origins in China, gunpowder spread via the trade routes and became

a powerful source of change between 150 and 150. The term Gunpowder

Empires refers to large, multiethnic states in Southwest, Central, and South

Asia that relied on frearms to conquer and control territories. In addition to

Russia, the Gunpowder Empires included three in which Islam was strong: the

Ottoman, the Safavid, and the Mughal Empires. Suleiman the Magnifcent,

quoted above, ruled the Ottoman Empire at its height. Although he declared

religious worship the happiest of all practices, he also personally led Ottoman

armies in conquering Christian strongholds in Belgrade, Rhodes, and

Hungary in Southeastern Europe. The Gunpowder Empire societies tended

to be militaristic, yet all three left splendid artistic and architectural legacies,

created in part to refect the legitimacy of their rulers.

The Qing Empire of China also expanded, and although it experienced

several invasions, it also prospered during long periods of stability. Europe’s

expansion involved an even wider exchange network than that which spread

gunpowder: transoceanic connections with the Americas. You will read more

about this path to empire expansion in Unit .

Armed trade was common in expanding empires during this period. The

different empires traded with one another. However, they kept troops and

armaments at the ready in case another empire questioned their right to trade.

This type of exchange differed from the free markets of later eras.

Europe

The year 150 has traditionally signifed the ending of the medieval period

and the beginning of the early modern period. The mid-100s saw the end

of a wave of plagues, the conclusion of the Hundred Years’ War between France and England see Topic 1.6 , and the invention of the Gutenberg

printing press followed by an increase in literacy. After the slow political

and economic development of the Middle Ages, several countries in Europe

were becoming powerful, wealthy nations. New monarchies began to launch

overseas explorations and establish colonies around the world.

The nature of the new monarchies in Europe in the 1500s was the result

of the desire of certain leaders to centralize power by controlling taxes, the

army, and many aspects of religion. These new monarchs included the Tudors

in England, the 9alois in France, and Queen Isabella and .ing Ferdinand

in Spain. In each area, bureaucracies increased and the power of the middle

class grew at the expense of lords and the churches. For example, the new

monarchies moved to curb the private armies of the nobility.

Russia

Western Europeans were long unsure what to think of Russia: Was Russia

more European in its outlook and character, or was it more Asian" Russia was

in a pivotal position for trade. It was able to exchange goods and services with

other cultures farther east and west. However, Russia remained tightly linked

to Europe. Its capital²whether .iev, St. Petersburg, or Moscow²was located

in Europe. Although a product of Mongol infuence from Central Asia to the

east, Russia was also a product of Europe as a result of 9iking invasions and

trading.

When Ivan IV ruled 15±158 , called Ivan the Terrible, was crowned

tsar in 15, he immediately set about to expand the Russian border eastward,

first by taking control of the khanates of .azan, Astrakhan, and Siberia held

by the descendants of the Golden Horde, the Mongolian conquerors. This

expansion came to rely more and more upon the use of gunpowder.

Control of the Volga Wanting to expand east to control the fur trade, Ivan

I9 allowed the Stroganovs, major Russian landowners, to hire bands of ferce

peasant warriors known as Cossacks to fght the local tribes and the Siberian

khan. The Stroganovs’ forces were successful, gaining control of the 9olga River, which fows into the Caspian Sea. Possessing this outlet to the sea,

Moscow could trade directly with Persia and the Ottoman Empire without

having to deal with the strong forces of the Crimean Tartars.

7o the 3acifc Russia continued moving east into Siberia after the reign

of Ivan I9. Fur traders and militias defeated one indigenous tribe after another.

Missionaries followed, converting many to the Eastern Orthodox faith, although

the local shamans, or religious leaders, continued to have infuence. By 16,

the Russians had advanced east as far as the Pacifc Ocean. Explorations and

fur trading expeditions continued across the Pacifc to Alaska 11 and down

the coast of North America to California 181 .

East Asia

China’s Yuan Dynasty, founded by Mongol invader .ublai .han in 121, was

overthrown by the Ming Dynasty in 168 after less than a century in power.

Ming rulers managed to stabilize the East Asian region for nearly 00 years.

During the Ming era, the Portuguese and other Europeans arrived, aiming to

encroach on the Asian trade network. Then, in 16, the powerful Manchu

from neighboring Manchuria seized power and established the Qing Dynasty,

which ruled until 111. During both of these dynasties, Japan and .orea

experienced parallel developments but with unique aspects.

The Ming Dynasty also expanded the size of China, conquering lands in

Mongolia and Central Asia. It did not hold them for long, however. In the

10s, Mongol armies defeated Ming forces and even took the Ming emperor

prisoner. In reaction to renewed Mongol power, China’s leaders looked to the

Great Wall of China for protection. The Wall had not been maintained under

Mongol rule, but under the Ming Dynasty it was restored and expanded to

help keep out invaders from the north. Connect: Create a chart comparing the

Ming and Yuan Dynasties. See Topic 2.2.

Emperor Kangxi One of China’s longest-reigning emperors, Kangxi

ruled 1661±122 presided over a period of stability and expansion during

the Qing Dynasty in China. .angxi sent forces into Taiwan, Mongolia, and

Central Asia, incorporating those areas into the empire. China also imposed a

protectorate over Tibet, the mountainous land north of India, a policy refected

in China’s control of the region today.

Emperor Qianlong Another important Qing ruler was Emperor

Qianlong ruled 16±16 , a poet, who was also knowledgeable in art and

calligraphy. At the beginning of his reign, the country was well administered

and government tax collections were at an all-time high. Qianlong initiated

military campaigns in lands west of China, which led to the annexation of

;injiang accompanied by the mass killings of the local population. Even

today, parts of ;injiang remain troubled. The local Muslim population, called

Uighurs, has never fully become incorporated into the rest of Chinese culture. Qianlong also sent armies into Tibet to install the Dalai Lama on the throne

there. A campaign against the Nepalese was successful, forcing them to submit

to Chinese rule. However, campaigns against Burma and 9ietnam were

unsuccessful and costly, resulting in the emptying of the empire’s treasury.

Conficts with the :est Needing funds, the Qing Dynasty sold limited

trading privileges to the European powers but confned them to Guangzhou

also known as Canton . The British were not satisfed with these limited

privileges, so they asked for more trading rights in 1. Emperor Qianlong

responded with a letter to .ing George III stating that the Chinese had no need

for British manufactured goods. During the later part of Qianlong’s reign,

the traditionally effcient Chinese bureaucracy became corrupt, levying high

taxes on the people. In response to these high taxes and a desire to restore

the Ming Dynasty, a group of peasants organized the White Lotus Rebellion

16±180 . The Qing government suppressed the uprising brutally, killing

around 100,000 peasants.

Rise of the Islamic Gunpowder Empires

The warrior leaders of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires shared

many traits besides being Muslims:

• They descended from Turkic nomads who once lived in Central Asia.

• They spoke a Turkic language.

• They took advantage of power vacuums left by the breakup of Mongol

khanates.

• They relied on gunpowder weapons, such as artillery and cannons.

The initial success of the Gunpowder Empires was a result of their own

military might along with the weakness and corruption of the regimes that

they replaced. As European nations fought among themselves rather than

uniting to topple the new powers growing in the east, the Gunpowder Empires

further expanded.

The Rule of Tamerlane The invasion of Central Asia and the Middle

East by Tamerlane Timur the Lame, a Mongol-Turkic ruler of the late 1th

century set the stage for the rise of the Turkic empires. Leading an army partly

composed of nomadic invaders from the broad steppes of Eurasia, Tamerlane

moved out from the trading city of Samarkand in modern-day Uzbekistan to

make ruthless conquests in Persia modern-day Iran and India. The Eurasian

steppes were also the birthplace of the ghazi ideal²a model for warrior life

that blended the cooperative values of nomadic culture with the willingness to

serve as a holy fghter for Islam. According to some historians, the ghazi ideal

served as the model for warriors who participated in the rise of the Gunpowder

Empires, and it was a model that ft Tamerlane well.

Some historians believe that Tamerlane’s violent takeover of areas of

Central Asia included the massacre of some 100,000 Hindus before the gates of Delhi in India. The pattern of conquest was marked by violence that resulted

in new dynasties: the Ottomans, the Safavids, and the Mughals. Nonetheless,

Tamerlane’s rule in Samarkand encouraged learning and the arts²a trend also

typical of these later empires. For example, Tamerlane championed literature,

and he himself corresponded with European rulers and wrote his own memoirs.

Buildings still standing in the city of Samarkand are lasting reminders of his

interest in architecture and decorative arts.

While the empire he created largely fell apart except for the area that

his descendant Babur would take over to create India’s Mughal Dynasty ,

Tamerlane’s invasions were a testament to the signifcance of gunpowder.

He used it to build a government dependent upon his military and the use

of heavy artillery. He also used it to protect land routes on the Silk Roads.

However, he failed to leave an effective political structure in many of the

areas he conquered. Without effective government, the expenses of the wars

eventually ravaged the empire’s economy.

Tamerlane’s rule casts light on two major forces that had battled each

other continually from the late 10th century to the 1th century²Mongols

from the northeast versus Islamic forces from Arabia and the areas around the

Mediterranean Sea. These forces would clash continuously with the rise and

fall of the three Asian Gunpowder Empires that are the focus of the rest of this

chapter.

The Ottoman Empire

By the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire was already becoming a major

power. Extending into modern-day Turkey as well as to the Balkan areas of

Europe and parts of North Africa and Southeast Asia, the Ottoman Empire was

the largest and most enduring of the great Islamic empires of this period. Founded

by the Osman Dynasty in the 100s, the empire lasted until its defeat in 118 by

the Allies in World War I. Thus a single dynasty controlled the empire for more

than 600 years.

Mehmed II Called the Conqueror, Mehmed II ruled 151±181 frmly

established the empire’s capital after his forces besieged Constantinople once

the center of the Byzantine Empire in 15. Despite its triple fortifcations,

the city fell as its walls crumbled under the bombardment of Ottoman cannons.

The Ottomans used a 26-foot bronze cannon and several other cannons from

15 to 22 feet in length. Under Mehmed II’s rule, the city²its name changed

to Istanbul²prospered because of its location. A nexus for trade, the city

controlled the Bosporus Strait, the only waterway linking the Aegean Sea with

the Black Sea.

The armies of Mehmed II next seized lands around the western edge of

the Black Sea. Then they moved into the Balkans in Southeast Europe. To

counter the power of 9enice, an expanding state on the Adriatic Sea with a

robust maritime trade, Mehmed strengthened the Ottoman navy and attacked

various areas of Italy. Although he did not conquer 9enice, he forced the city to pay him a yearly tax. In the early 16th century, the Ottomans added to

their empire lands in present-day Syria, Israel, Egypt, and Algeria. When the

Mamluk Dynasty’s power declined, Istanbul became a center of Islam. For

more on the Mamluk Empire, see Topic 1.2.

Suleiman I The Ottoman Empire reached its peak under Suleiman I

ruled 1520±1566 . His armies overran Hungary in 1526 and, by 152, were

hammering at the gates of 9ienna, the main city in Austria. Their attempt to

take 9ienna failed twice, but the ability of the Ottomans to send troops so far

into Christian Europe caused great fear there.

In 1522, Suleiman’s navy captured the island of Rhodes now part of

Greece in the eastern Mediterranean, which had long been a stronghold of

Christian knights. In the 1550s, the Ottoman navy took control of Tripoli in

North Africa. The Ottoman Empire would experience a transformation as the

state adapted to new internal and external pressures. A period of reform would

follow by the 18th century. Challenges in defending Ottoman territory against

foreign invasion and occupation led to the Ottoman defeat and dissolution by

122.

The Safavids

The Safavid dynasty had its origin in the Safavid order of Sufsm, established

in the northern Azerbaijan region Iran . An early Safavid military hero named

Ismail conquered most of Persia and pushed into Iraq. Although only 1 or 15

years old, he soon conquered all of Iran and was proclaimed shah equivalent

to king or emperor in 1501.

The Safavid Empire had two problems. First, despite being on the Arabian

Sea part of the Indian Ocean , the empire did not have a real navy. Second,

the Safavids lacked natural defenses. Nevertheless, the Safavids rose to power

in the 1500s due to their land-based military might and strong leadership.

Called Abbas the Great, Shah Abbas I ruled 1588±162 presided over

the Safavid Empire at its height. His troops included soldiers²often Christian

boys pressed into service²from as far northwest as Georgia in Russia. Abbas

imported weaponry from Europe and also relied on Europeans to advise his

troops about this newly acquired military technology. Slowly, the shahs came to

control religion as well as politics. Using Shi’a Islam as a unifying force, Shah

Ismail built a power base that supported his rule and denied legitimacy to any

Sunni. This strict adherence to Shi’a Islam caused frequent hostilities with the

Ottoman Empire, a stronghold of Sunni Islam. In 151, Safavid forces were

stopped by the Ottomans at Tabriz, a city in Persia that became part of the border

between Sunni and Shi’a societies. The hostility between the two groups lives

on in present-day Iraq and Iran.

Conficts between Ottomans and Safavids were not entirely religious,

however. Another confict arose over control of overland trade routes. The

Ottomans used trade embargoes, offcial bans on trade, consistently against

the Safavid silk traders as a way to assert dominance over their eastern rival. :oPen in the SaIaYiG (PSire Women are rarely mentioned in local

Safavid histories however, Safavid women were permitted to participate in

their societies. While Safavid women were still veiled and restricted in their

movements, as was traditional in the region, they had access to rights provided

by Islamic law for inheritance and, in extreme cases, divorce.

Mughal India

In the 1520s, Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane see Topic 2.2 , founded a

00-year dynasty during a time when India was in disarray. He completed

conquests in northern India and, under the new Mughal name, formed a

central government similar to that of Suleiman in Turkey. Akbar, Babur’s

grandson, achieved grand religious and political goals.

The Mughal Empire under Akbar was one of the richest and best￾governed states in the world. Overseas trade fourished during the relatively

peaceful period Arab traders conducted most of the commerce. Traded goods

included textiles, tropical foods, spices, and precious stones, all of which

were often exchanged for gold and silver. Trade within the borders of the

empire was carried on by merchant castes. Members of the merchant castes

were allowed to participate in banking and the production of handicrafts.

Castes, or jatis, are strict social groupings designated at birth. The caste

system divides Hindu people into four categories: Brahmins, .shatriyas,

9aishyas, and the Shudras. Outside of the system are the achhoots, or the

Dalits, the untouchables. The Indian caste system is the basis of educational

and vocational opportunities for Indian society.

Mughal India fourished from Babur’s time through the early 18th century.

Magnifcent architectural accomplishments are remaining testaments to the

wealth and sophistication of the Mughal empire.

Decline of the Gunpowder Empires

The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires declined as Western Europe grew

in strength economically and militarily²particularly in terms of sea power.

Unlike these three Islamic empires, Russia modernized and reorganized its

army, modeling it after the armies of England, France, and the Netherlands.

The Islamic empires did not modernize and, as a result, Russia remained

powerful enough to survive as an independent nation-state, while the other

Gunpowder Empires fell.

Decline of the Ottoman Empire In 151, after Suleiman’s death, a

European force made up mostly of Spaniards and 9enetians defeated the

Ottomans in a great naval confict known as the Battle of Lepanto. After

the reign of Suleiman, the Ottomans fell victim to weak sultans and strong

European neighbors. In time, the empire became known as the Sick Man of

Europe. Successors to Suleiman were often held hostage to “harem politics,”

the efforts of wives and concubines of the sultan to promote their own children as likely heirs to the throne. In this way, some women became powerful

behind the scenes. The failed Siege of 9ienna in 168 marked a turning point

in Ottoman domination in Eastern Europe. British and French involvement

in the Ottoman territories, Greece’s independence in 1821, and the Russian

expansion in the 1th century further weakened the Ottoman Empire.

Safavid Decline The ineffectual leaders who followed Shah Abbas

combined lavish lifestyles and military spending with falling revenues, resulting

in a weakened economy. In 122, Safavid forces were not able to quell a

rebellion by the heavily oppressed Sunni Pashtuns in present-day Afghanistan.

The Afghan forces went on to sack Isfahan, and their leader, Mahmud, declared

himself Shah of Persia. While the Safavid Dynasty remained nominally

in control, the resulting chaos was an impediment to centralization and tax

collection. Taking advantage of the weakened Safavids, the Ottomans and the

Russians were able to seize territories. The Safavid Dynasty declined rapidly

until it was replaced by the =and Dynasty in 160.

Mughal Decline Shah Jahan’s son and successor, Aurangzeb ruled 1658±

10 , inherited an empire weakened by corruption and the failure to keep up

with the military innovations of external enemies. Nevertheless, Aurangzeb

hoped to increase the size of the empire and bring all of India under Muslim rule.

Additionally, he wanted to rid the empire of its Hindu influencesIn expanding the empire to the south, he drained the empire’s treasury

and was unable to put down peasant uprisings. Some of these uprisings were

sparked by Aurangzeb’s insistence on an austere and pious Islamic lifestyle and

an intolerance of minority religions²Sikhs, Hindus, and others. His policies led

to frequent conficts and rebellions.

There were revolts as well among the Hindu and Islamic princes. The empire

grew increasingly unstable after his death, which allowed the British and French

to gain more and more economic power in India. The British would take political

power away from the Mughals in the 1th century.

3.2: Empires: Administrations

By the end of the 16th century, centralization of power by controlling taxes,

the army, and some aspects of religion coalesced into a system of government

that led to a powerful monarch in England and absolute monarchy in France.

In other states, different methods were used to solidify authority: building

temples, as with the Inca paying the military elite a salary, as with the samurai

in Japan and forcibly establishing a captive governmental bureaucracy, as

with the Ottoman devshirme system.

Rulers of empires in the years 150 to 150 developed methods for

assuring they maintained control of all the regions of their empires. Some of

the successful methods included using bureaucratic elites to oversee sections

of the empire and developing a professional military.

Centralizing Control in Europe

England’s .ing James I believed in the divine right of kings, a common claim

from the Middle Ages that the right to rule was given to a king by God. Under

this belief, a king was a political and religious authority. As seen in the quote

above, James believed himself outside of the law and any earthly authority and

saw any challenge toward him as a challenge to God.

(nJlanG¶s *entry 2Ifcials In England, the Tudors ruled 185±160

relied on justices of the peace, offcials selected by the landed gentry to

“swear that as Justices of the Peace . . . in all articles in the .ing’s Commission

to you directed, ye shall do equal right to the poor and to the rich after your

cunning wit, and power, and after the laws and customs of the realm and

statutes thereof made,” according to their oath of offce. In other words, their

job was to maintain peace in the counties of England, even settling some legal

matters, and to carry out the monarch’s laws. The number and responsibilities of the justices of the peace increased through the years of Tudor rule, and

they became among the most important and powerful groups in the kingdom.

Under Tudor rule, the power of feudal lords weakened. Many seats in the

House of Commons in Parliament were occupied by justices of the peace. The

justices of the peace as well as the Parliament, which had been established in

1265, gave legitimacy to the monarch’s claim to authority.

Parliament also checked the monarch’s powers. In 168, England’s rulers

William and Mary signed the English Bill of Rights, which assured individual

civil liberties. For example, legal process was required before someone could

be arrested and detained. The Bill of Rights also guaranteed protection against

tyranny of the monarchy by requiring the agreement of Parliament on matters

of taxation and raising an army.

Absolutism in France In contrast to developments in England, the

French government became more absolute—directed by one source of power,

the king, with complete authority²in the 1th and 18th centuries. Henry I9

ruled 158±1610 of the House of 9alois listened to his advisor Jean Bodin,

who advocated the divine right of the monarchy. Building on these ideas,

Louis ;III ruled 1610±16 and his minister Cardinal Richelieu moved to

even greater centralization of the government and development of the system

of intendants. These intendants were royal offcials²bureaucratic elites²

sent out to the provinces to execute the orders of the central government.

The intendants themselves were sometimes called tax farmers because they

oversaw the collection of various taxes in support of the royal governments.

The Sun .ing, Louis XIV ruled 16±115 , espoused a theory of

divine right and was a virtual dictator. His aims were twofold, just as those

of Richelieu had been: He wanted to hold absolute power and expand French

borders. Louis declared that he was the state: “L’etat, c’est moi.” He combined

the lawmaking and the justice system in his own person²he was absolute.

He kept nobles close to him in his palace at Versailles, making it diffcult

for them to act independently or plot against him. Louis and his successors’

refusal to share power eventually weakened the French government. Reigning in Control of the Russian Empire

Social hierarchy in Moscow was almost static²much as it had been in .ievan

Russia earlier. The noble landowning class, the boyars, stood at the top of

the social pyramid. Below them were the merchants. Last and most numerous

were the peasants, who would gradually sink more and more deeply into debt

and, as a result, into serfdom. Serfs were peasants who received a plot of

land and protection from a noble. In return, the serfs were bound to that land

and had little personal freedom. Transfers of land ownership to another noble

included control over the serfs on that land.

The Efforts of Ivan IV The boyar class experienced tensions with the

rulers similar to the tensions between nobles and rulers in Western Europe.

Boyars of Novgorod had opposed the expansionist policies of Ivan IV, so

Ivan punished them after his forces defeated Novgorod. Ivan I9 confscated

the lands of his boyar opponents and forced them and their families to move to

Moscow. Like Louis ;I9, he wanted to keep an eye on the nobility.

To further control the boyars, Ivan established a paramilitary force loyal

to him called the oprichnina. Dressed in black and traveling quickly on

horseback, the members showed ferce loyalty to Ivan. They were drawn from

lower-level bureaucrats and merchants to assure their loyalty to Ivan rather

than to the boyars. The oprichnina’s methods would be refected later in the

development of the Russian secret police. Peter the Great The Romanov Dynasty took control of Russia in 161

after a period of turmoil following Ivan’s death in 158. Under the autocratic

control of the Romanovs, three main groups in Russia had conficting desires

and agendas: the Church, bent on conserving traditional values and beliefs

the boyars, desiring to gain and hold power and members of the tsar’s royal

family. The rise to power of Peter I, also known as Peter the Great ruled

1682±125 , illustrates these conficting ambitions. First, to gain full control

of the throne, Peter had to defeat his half-sister Sophia and her supporters, a

boyar-led elite military corps called the Streltsy. He consolidated power by

forcing Sophia into a convent. Later, the Streltsy rebelled against Peter’s reign,

so he temporarily disbanded them and then integrated them into Russia’s

regular army.

Peter the Great was known as the Defender of Orthodoxy, participating

closely in ecclesiastical >church@ affairs. However, Peter would eventually lose

the support of the Russian clergy over his reforms. Later in his reign, Peter

reorganized the Russian government by creating provinces frst 8 and later

50 administrative divisions . Provincial offcials received a salary, replacing

the old system of local offcials “feeding off the land” getting money through

bribes, fees, and taxes . Another government reform was the creation of a

senate, a council to advise government offcials when Peter was away.

Centralizing Control in the Ottoman Empire

To ensure their control over large areas, the Ottoman sultans used a selection

system called devshirme to staff their military and their government. This

system began in the late 1th century and expanded in the 15th and 16th

centuries. Through this system, Christian boys who were subjects of the empire

were recruited by force to serve in the Ottoman government. Boys ages 8 to 20

were taken each year from conquered Christian lands in Europe.

The system of devshirme developed from an earlier system of slavery

in the Ottoman Empire. In both systems, enslaved people were considered

tribute owed to the empire after conquest, which was typically one-ffth of the

conquered land’s wealth. Since Islamic law prohibited enslavement of “people

of the book”²Muslims and Jews²Christian boys were forcibly removed

from their families, especially from Balkan territories.

The Christian boys were taught various skills in politics, the arts, and the

military and received a very high level of education. The most famous group,

called Janissaries, formed elite forces in the Ottoman army. Other boys were

groomed to become administrators of the newly conquered territories some

were scribes, tax collectors, and even diplomats. They were indoctrinated to

be fercely loyal to the sultan²some served as bodyguards. In some ways,

becoming a Janissary provided a path of upward mobility in the Ottoman

Empire, even though the Janissaries continued to be called “slaves of the

state.” Some parents even wanted their sons to be recruited into the service. Centralizing Control in East and South Asia

Following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty, the Ming ruled in

China from 168±16. The Ming Dynasty in China wanted to erase the

influence of Mongol rulers of the Yuan Dynasty. To help accomplish this goal,

the Ming brought back the traditional civil service exam, improved education

by establishing a national school system, and reestablished the bureaucracy,

which had fallen into disuse under the Mongols. See Topic 2.2. During the

Qing Dynasty, in the later part of Qianlong’s reign, the traditionally efficient

Chinese bureaucracy became corrupt, levying high taxes on the people. The

Qing government used harsh military control to put down a rebellion against

these developments and maintain its authority.

Consolidating Power in Japan Military leaders called shoguns ruled

Japan in the emperor’s name from the 12th to the 15th centuries. Yet confict

between landholding aristocrats called daimyo left Japan in disarray. Each

daimyo had an army of warriors known as samurai  ambition to conquer

more territory and power to rule his fefdoms as he saw ft. The samurai

were salaried, paid frst in rice and later in gold, which gave them signifcant

economic power. Finally, just as gunpowder weapons enabled the rise of new

empires in Turkey, Persia, and India, gunpowder weapons helped a series of

three powerful daimyo to gradually unify Japan. Connect: Write a paragraph

connecting shogun rule with the rule of the daimyo. See Topic 1.1.

The frst of these powerful daimyo was Oda Nobunaga. Armed with

muskets purchased from Portuguese traders, Nobunaga and his samurai took

over .yoto in 1568. He then began to extend his power, forcing daimyo in the

lands around .yoto to submit. Nobunaga had unifed about one-third of what

is today Japan when he was assassinated in 1582.

Nobunaga’s successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, continued expanding the

territory until most of what we now know as Japan was under his control.

After his death in 158, the center of power shifted to the city of Edo Tokyo ,

controlled by the daimyo Tokugawa Ieyasu ruled 1600±1616 , who was

declared shogun in 160. His successors would continue to rule Japan into the

mid-1th century, in an era known as the Period of Great Peace.

The Tokugawa shogunate set about reorganizing the governance of Japan

in order to centralize control over what was essentially a feudal system. Japan

was divided into 250 hans, or territories, each of which was controlled by

a daimyo who had his own army and was fairly independent. However, the

Tokugawa government required that daimyo maintain residences both in their

home territory and also in the capital if the daimyo himself was visiting his

home territory, his family had to stay in Tokyo, essentially as hostages. This

kept the daimyo under the control of the shogunate, reducing them to landlords

who managed the hans, rather than independent leaders.

Consolidating Mughal Power in South Asia Ruling from 1556 to

1605, Akbar proved to be the most capable of the Mughal rulers. For the

frst 0 years of his rule, he defeated Hindu armies and extended his empire southward and westward. From his capital in Delhi, Akbar established an

effcient government and a system of fairly administered laws. For example,

all his people had the right to appeal to him for fnal judgment in any lawsuit.

As Akbar’s fame spread, capable men from many parts of Central Asia came

to serve him. They helped Akbar create a strong, centralized government and

an effective civil service. Paid government offcials called zamindars were in

charge of specifc duties, such as taxation, construction, and the water supply.

Later, they were given grants of land rather than salaries but were permitted

to keep a portion of the taxes paid by local peasants, who contributed one￾third of their produce to the government. The system worked well under

Akbar. Under the rulers who came after him, though, the zamindars began

to keep more of the taxes that they collected. With this money, they built

personal armies of soldiers and civilians loyal to them.

Legitimizing Power through Religion and Art

European governments sought to legitimize the authority of the monarch

through the idea of the divine right of monarchy. For more information

about the divine right of monarchy, see Topic .. They also built impressive

structures, such as the Palace of 9ersailles in France, to demonstrate their

power and glory. Governments in other parts of the world followed similar

patterns to consolidate and legitimize their authority. See Topic 1. for links

among religion, grand temples and pyramids, human sacrifce, and political

power in the Mexica and Incan cultures.

Peter and St. Petersburg When Peter the Great seized lands on the

Baltic Sea from Sweden, the conquest gave Russia its own warm-water port

on the Baltic²St. Petersburg. Peter moved the Russian capital from Moscow

to St. Petersburg so he could keep watch on the boyars there, who were doing

their required state service by working in his government.

The new city became a testament to Peter’s determination to have his own

capital. Architects laid out streets in a rectangular grid, unlike the irregular

pattern of Moscow and other cities. Peasants and Swedish prisoners of war

were forced to work, draining marshes and building streets and government

structures. In the mid-18th century, workers built the famous Winter Palace.

It was designed in a European rather than a Byzantine style to show Peter’s

admiration of Europe and its rulers.

Askia the Great of Songhai Askia Mohammad I, or Askia the Great,

came to power in 1. He claimed his predecessor, Sunni Ali, was not a

faithful Muslim. Like Mansa Musa of Mali, Askia the Great promoted Islam

throughout his kingdom and made an elaborate pilgrimage to Mecca. Under

his leadership, Songhai became the largest kingdom in its day in West Africa.

Askia made Islam Songhai’s offcial religion in an attempt to unite his empire.

In addition to legitimizing his rule through promoting Islam, he also supported

an effcient bureaucracy to bring the empire together. Shah Jahan Mughal India produced a number of magnifcent architectural

accomplishments, including the Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan ruled 1628±

1658 as a tomb for his wife. Mughal rulers also beautifed Delhi and had

forts built. The craftspeople and builders of Mughal India combined the arts of

Islam calligraphy, illumination of manuscripts, and ceramics with local arts

to create magnifcent, airy structures with decorative geometric designs. All

these accomplishments showed the power of the rulers.

Ottoman Architectural and Artistic Achievements Tremendous

changes in government and religion took place in Ottoman territory. However,

the arts, the culture, and the economy showed continuities, though they now

legitimized the rule of the Ottomans. Constantinople, renamed Istanbul,

remained the western end of the overland Silk Roads, and the Grand Bazaar

there continued to be full of foreign imports. Coffeehouses, although banned

by Islamic law, continued to do a thriving business throughout the towns of the

empire. Istanbul grew more beautiful and expanded across both sides of the Strait of

Bosporus. One famous landmark is the royal residence of the sultans, Topkapi

Palace. Mehmed II lived 12±181 began construction on this landmark.

Suleiman I lived 1±1566 ordered many mosques, forts, and other great

buildings constructed in the cities under his control. For example, he ordered

the construction in Istanbul of the magnifcent Suleymaniye Mosque.

Istanbul remained a center of arts and learning. Poets and scholars

from across Asia met in coffeehouses and gardens. They discussed works

by Aristotle and other Greek writers, as well as the works of many Arabic

scholars. Cultural contributions of the Ottomans included the restoration of

some of the glorious buildings of Constantinople, most notably the cathedral

of Saint Sophia which the Ottomans turned into a grand mosque . From the

time of Mehmed II, who established a workshop for their production, Ottoman

miniature paintings and illuminated manuscripts became famous.

French Architecture The spacious and elegant palace at 9ersailles

became a political instrument. Louis ;I9 entertained the nobles there and kept

them from conducting business elsewhere, such as fomenting rebellion in their

home provinces. Louis ;I9’s grand buildings at 9ersailles helped legitimize

his power. The palace at 9ersailles, for example, could accommodate hundreds

of guests. During the rule of Louis ;I9, some 1,000 employees worked in the

palace or on the grounds.

Financing Empires

As in other matters of building and maintaining empires, different methods

of raising money worked²or fell short²in different empires. In all of the

world’s empires, raising money to fund the goals of imperial expansion and

extend state power was a key endeavor.

Taxation in Russia Peter established new industries owned by the state,

especially shipyards in St. Petersburg and iron mines in the Ural Mountains.

He also encouraged private industries such as metallurgy >technology of metal

products@, woodwork, gunpowder, leather, paper, and mining. He brought

in Western European naval engineers to build ships according to Western

models.

When industrialization failed to bring in the revenue Peter needed for his

military ventures, he raised taxes and began to compel workers to work in

the shipyards²a sort of urban extension of serfdom. In 118, the tax on land

in Russia was replaced by a tax on heads individuals , and peasants became

more oppressed than ever.

Ottoman and Mughal Taxation To fnance an economy backed by

a powerful military, the Ottomans levied taxes on the peasants and used

tax farming to collect it. The tax farmers²local offcials and private tax

collectors distant from the central government²grew wealthy and corrupt

from skimming money from the taxes in their areas, as some of the zamindars

did in the Mughal Empire. Agricultural villages continued to be burdened with the upkeep of offcers and troops. This burden of taxes and the military would

eventually contribute to the economic decline of the empire.

Tax Collection in the Ming Dynasty In Ming China as well as in the

Ottoman Empire, tax collection was the responsibility of private citizens, in

this case wealthy families, each seeing to the collection of land taxes in their

area of the countryside. Land taxes made up the bulk of the taxes collected,

and the rates tended to be low. Taxes were collected in the form of grains

and, later, silver. Some grains were stored in local facilities. Others were sent

on the Grand Canal to military locations. The state also collected taxes on

salt, wine, and other goods. For many years, the vaults stored a surplus of

grains. However, after about 1580, wars, extravagant imperial spending, and

the repression of rebellions left the dynasty in bankruptcy.

Tributes Empires, including China, also collected tributes from other

states as a way to demand recognition of their power and authority. Typically

as a form of wealth, tributes were given as a sign of respect, submission, or

allegiance. For example, .orea was a tributary state for China. The Mexica had

extensive tributary arrangements from the people they conquered, although

most Aztec citizens, merchants, and artisans paid taxes. An Aztec offcial was

stationed in each capital to collect tributes from local offcials.

The Songhai Empire also had tributary states. Askia the Great assigned

governors and offcials to preside over tributary states in the Niger 9alley. As

long as local offcials obeyed Songhai policies, they could rule their districts.

3.3

3.4