Participation in sport and influencing factors

• Individuals have diverse preferences and motivations when it comes to engaging in sports, and their decisions are shaped by various factors such as:

  • Age

  • Gender

  • Race, religion, and culture

  • Disability

  • Influence of family, friends, and peers

• Certain factors involve an element of personal choice, such as selecting friends, while others, like gender and age, are not subject to individual decisions.

• Certain factors may undergo changes over time.

  • Everyone experiences aging, and an individual who was initially non-disabled may acquire a disability later in life.

• Certain factors are beyond an individual's control.

  • Ethnicity is inherent and cannot be altered, and children lack the ability to choose their family background.

• Certain physiological factors are connected to social aspects. For instance:

  • Aging can impact an individual's flexibility.

  • A disability may influence the execution of certain skills.

  • Puberty affects girls' and boys' bodies disparately and at varying times.

• Social factors are interconnected, as everyone possesses an age, gender, and ethnicity.

  • Each of these factors may exert different influences in diverse situations.

Age, gender, race, religion and culture in sport

Age

• Aging has diverse effects on individuals, with certain age-related patterns influencing engagement in sports.

• In early childhood, the development of gross motor skills is crucial for children to become proficient movers.

• During adolescence, a growth spurt alters physical development, impacting the acquisition of skills and influencing aspects such as confidence, self-esteem, and body image.

• Women undergoing menopause may undergo various changes, including weight gain, aches, anxiety, and concentration loss, potentially affecting their self-confidence.

• In later stages of life, older individuals may experience weight gain, reduced flexibility, and strength, making recovery from injuries more challenging and diminishing confidence in their physical abilities.

• As individuals age, accumulating responsibilities, such as academic pressures, work commitments, or growing family obligations, may reduce the time available for sports participation.

Gender

• Each girl and woman has individual reasons influencing their decision to participate or not in physical activity.

• Research highlights common obstacles to participation, as many girls and/or women:

  • Fail to perceive the relevance of physical education (PE) and sports to their lives.

  • Perceive limited choices in PE and school sports.

  • Dislike participating with boys or men who dominate play or exhibit aggressive behavior.

  • Prioritize having fun, making friends, and staying fit over excelling in sports.

  • Feel judged and experience embarrassment related to their appearance.

  • Have limited spare time due to childcare and domestic responsibilities.

  • Lack positive role models at both local and national levels.

  • Observe that women's sports often have lower status and receive less media coverage.

Race, religion and culture

• More than half of individuals in black and minority ethnic (BME) communities abstain from participating in sports or physical activities.

  • On average, all BME groups exhibit lower participation rates compared to the national average.

• A primary contributor to the lower participation rates in BME communities is the scarcity of BME role models in leadership and organizational roles within sports.

• For instance:

  • Only 5% of coaches belong to BME communities.

  • Just 7% of sports professionals (excluding performers) hail from BME backgrounds.

  • Individuals from BME communities are 50% less likely to engage in sports volunteering than the general population.

• In certain communities, the combined factors of ethnicity, religion, and gender intensify the impact on participation.

  • As an illustration, 92% of South Asian women fall short of meeting the recommended levels of physical activity, contrasting with 55% of women across all demographics.

Disability and inclusion in sport

• In the UK, there are approximately 11 million individuals with disabilities, encompassing those with physical, visual, and hearing impairments, as well as individuals with learning difficulties.

  • The involvement of disabled individuals in sports significantly lags behind that of their non-disabled counterparts across all age groups.

• This discrepancy can be attributed to various factors, including:

  • Physical barriers, such as the absence of adapted equipment or its associated costs.

  • Logistical challenges, such as a lack of transportation options or inadequate communication methods.

  • Psychological barriers, including a lack of confidence and the impact of others' attitudes.

• Several sports and physical activities strive to promote the inclusion of disabled individuals.

  • Achieving inclusion necessitates staff and volunteers to maintain a positive attitude, communicate effectively, and be capable of adapting activities to accommodate diverse needs.

Taking part in Sport

• Individuals with disabilities engage in sports through various avenues, either alongside non-disabled participants or within groups of other disabled individuals.

• It is essential that individuals have the freedom to choose and modify their preferred mode of participation.

Sports and physical activities can undergo adaptation through alterations in:

• Location: This includes modifying parameters such as a shorter distance, a lower net, or creating specific zones on the court.

• Execution: Changes in how the activity is performed, such as allowing two bounces before hitting the ball or substituting rolling for throwing.

• Equipment: Adapting the tools used, like incorporating a bell-ball or replacing a whistle with a flag.

• Roles: Adjusting who performs specific tasks, such as forming uneven teams like 6v4 or introducing a guide runner.

The Impact of Family, Friends and Peers in choosing to Participate

• Throughout one's life, individuals often engage with various communities like school, sports clubs, and friendship circles.

• While these groups may evolve, the familial unit remains remarkably constant.

• Due to this stability, family exerts a significant influence on the choices individuals make regarding their participation in physical activities.

• Parents, siblings, and the broader family can exert either positive or negative influences, illustrated through the following examples:

• Positive:

  • Moral support: Expressing encouragement and congratulating a son or daughter for putting in effort during an athletics taster session.

  • Financial support: Covering the cost of a child's golf club membership fee.

  • Transport: Committing to driving a child to regional table tennis training, even if it's a two-hour journey every Sunday.

• Negative:

  • Moral support: Failing to attend the child's school hockey matches due to a busy schedule.

  • Financial support: Refraining from purchasing new pointe shoes for dance when the older pair becomes too small for the child.

  • Transport: Depending on a teammate's parent to provide transportation for the child to netball practice every Sunday.

• Friends and peers wield considerable influence and can either contribute positively or negatively to an individual's choices.

  • As adolescents transition into their teenage years, friends may start engaging in alternative social activities like parties.

  • This phase often sees a decline in regular participation in physical activities among young people.

  • Supportive friends actively engage by watching their friends play or perform, inquire about their competitions, and provide genuine interest and moral support, regardless of the outcome.

Commercialisation

• Sport extends beyond mere participation; it has become an integral component of the commercial realm, strategically managed and marketed to generate revenue.

• Sponsorship and media have evolved into substantial influences on the world of sports.

Elite Sport, The Media and Sponsors

Commercialism in sports revolves around generating profits, involving three primary stakeholders:

1. Sport:

• Sport reaps benefits from commercial endeavors.

  • Increased revenue aids individual athletes and sports organizations in enhancing participation, elevating performances, and garnering support.

• In an era where technology plays a growing role in sports, and competitions intensify for participant and spectator engagement, funding becomes increasingly pivotal.

2. Media:

• The media capitalizes on the commercialization of sports. High-profile sports stories serve to attract audiences, listeners, and readers, ensuring that sports maintain a prominent presence in the media landscape.

3. Sponsors:

• Sponsors derive advantages from the commercialization of sports.

  • Their financial support is indispensable for the growth of sports.

• In return, extensive coverage of sports guarantees a heightened profile for their companies.

• This interconnection among elite sports, the media, and sponsorship is commonly referred to as the "golden triangle."

• Despite its numerous benefits, commercialism in sports can also have negative aspects.

• For instance, some argue that the commercialization of elite football in the UK has negatively altered the game and eroded traditional community-based connections between supporters and clubs.

• The concept of the golden triangle illustrates the connection among sport, the media, and sponsorship, epitomizing the commercial, money-making aspect of sports.

• The dynamics of this relationship exhibit significant variation across different sports and sports events.

Types of Media and Sponsorship

Various forms of media encompass:

1. Television:

• Local and national coverage; freeview options; subscription or pay-per-view services; interactive features; on-demand services; Red Button services; satellite or cable broadcasting.

2. Radio:

• Local and national radio channels; both analogue and digital platforms; public and commercial radio stations.

3. Press:

• Newspapers, including local and national, as well as daily and weekly publications; magazines encompassing both general and specialized topics; books, ranging from technical works to biographies and novels.

4. Films:

• Presentation in cinemas; television broadcasts; availability on DVDs; online streaming.

5. Internet:

• Websites offering diverse content; blogs covering a range of topics; video channels; and various social media platforms.

Different forms of sponsorship include:

1. Individuals:

• Displaying a logo; wearing a specific brand; endorsing products.

2. Teams and Clubs:

• Wearing team kits; displaying banners; adopting a company name for the team, the ground, or a specific stand/court within the facility.

3. Sports:

• Renaming competitions, cups, and leagues; branding their development programs.

4. Events:

• Permitting the use of their logo on sponsors' products; offering free products to participants.

Advantages for Sport:

1. Individuals:

• Covers expenses such as kit, equipment, travel, accommodation, competition fees, and training time.

2. Teams and Clubs:

• Subsidizes costs related to kit, equipment, and maintenance of grounds or clubhouses.

3. Sports:

• Supports funding for coaching and coach development, beginner programs, and talent development.

4. Events:

• Encompasses venue hire, catering, hospitality, publicity, program creation, officials' costs, and event giveaways.

Advantages for Sponsors:

1. Raises awareness of their company or brand.

2. Advertises products and services.

3. Promotes a positive image of their company.

4. Provides rewards or incentives for staff and customers.

5. Increases sales or revenue.

6. Reduces tax through tax relief.

Advantages and disadvantages of technology

For Athletes

• Advantages:

  • Better performance - marginal gains make the difference

  • Better medical care results in fewer injuries or foster recovery from injury

  • Feedback from coaches is more focused, objective, and helpful.

  • Improved kit is more comfortable, more efficient, and safer.

  • Part of a team, not isolated

• Disadvantages:

  • Invades privacy

  • Blurs lines between personal and professional time

  • Availability and cost - makes sport and success exclusive to wealthy people and countries

  • Puts the sole focus on winning not athletic endeavor

For Officials

• Advantages:

  • Supports team approach so there is less pressure on individuals

  • Information can be shared easily and quickly and stored overtime

  • Decisions and scoring are more reliable and accurate

  • There is increased confidence and trust in officials

• Disadvantages:

  • Slows the game

  • Not available at all levels of competition

  • No longer trust people’s decisions.

  • Undermines respect for officials knowledge and expertise

  • Undermines honesty, integrity and the spirit of fair play

For Spectators

• Advantages:

  • More engaged in sport

  • More informed about rules, players etc.

  • Have a direct link to athletes

• Disadvantages:

  • Detracts from actual play

  • Reduces the atmosphere at live events

  • Reduces in interest in grass roots events that aren’t supported by technology

  • Increases spectator/broadcaster costs

  • Enables trolls to attack individual athletes

For Sports

• Advantages:

  • Increases participation

  • Promotes new and alternative opportunities

  • Supports less-wealthy sports to promote themselves

  • leads to more coverage and revenue

  • Improves safety

• Disadvantages:

  • Detracts from intensity of physical activity

  • Reduces emotional wellbeing that comes from escaping digital pressures/routines

  • Increases costs to sports and participants

  • Sponsors more interested in technology than sport or athletes

Ethical and Socio-cultural issues in Physical Activity and Sport

Sporting Behavior

Rules

• Participants are required to adhere to the established rules of a sport.

• In organized sports, these regulations are formulated by each sport's governing body and are enforced by officials during gameplay.

• The purpose of these rules is to ensure that play is conducted in a safe and fair manner.

• Players face penalties if they fail to adhere to the rules or show disrespect to the officials.

• In informal or adapted activities, participants commonly come to a mutual agreement on their own set of rules.

• This collaborative approach to rule adaptation promotes inclusivity in sports while still maintaining standards of fairness and safety.

Etiquette

• Sports also encompass unspoken rules or traditions, commonly known as etiquette, which aim to uphold principles of respect and fairness.

• These unwritten guidelines encourage individuals to engage in the "spirit of the game," emphasizing an active commitment to both respect and fairness rather than merely avoiding rule violations.

• Examples of etiquette in sports include acknowledging when a tennis ball is out and the practice of shaking hands with opponents before and after significant football matches, irrespective of the match's outcome.

Sportsmanship

• Sportsmanship entails adhering to the rules, embracing sports etiquette, and playing fairly in the spirit of the game.

• It involves demonstrating respect and fair play towards opponents, as well as exhibiting graciousness in both victory and defeat.

• Instances of sportsmanship include:

  • In football, kicking the ball out when an opponent is injured, and the opposing team returning possession once play resumes.

  • Assisting an opposing player to their feet if they are down with an injury.

  • In a tennis match, a player acknowledges the ball as 'in,' even if the line judge ruled it 'out,' thereby conceding the point to their opponent.

Gamesmanship

• Players, without outright violation, might employ tactics that bend the rules or involve questionable methods to gain an advantage. Instances include:

  • Intentionally falling after a tackle in the penalty area to attempt to secure a penalty in football.

  • Distracting an opponent, as seen in cricket through methods like sledging, where bowlers and fielders verbally abuse or intimidate a batsman to disrupt their focus.

  • Engaging in time-wasting strategies in hockey to impede the opposition's attempts to score.

Contract to Compete

• The implicit and unwritten connection that exists between all sporting performers and their sport, as well as with fellow participants, is often referred to as the "contract to compete."

• Some argue that this contract is integral to defining sport, and without it, the fair play model of sport would be fundamentally compromised.

• The contract to compete encompasses the following components:

  • Demonstrating sportsmanship consistently.

  • Adhering fully to all rules.

  • Exhibiting etiquette towards teammates, opponents, and officials.

  • Pledging to maintain a level playing field for all competitors.

  • Always giving one's best effort.

Prohibited Substances

Illicit drugs

• illegal drugs

• medicines that are used for non-medical purposes

• other substances used inappropriately (such as inhalants)

• Illicit drugs fall into 3 categories:

  • stimulants — such as amphetamines and cocaine

  • depressants — such as heroin

  • hallucinogens — such as LSD and magic mushrooms

Stimulants

• Stimulants speed up the central nervous system and may be used by athletes to reduce fatigue and increase their alertness.

• They include:

  • Amphetamines

  • Cocaine

  • Ecstasy

  • methylphenidate (brand name Ritalin)

  • Nicotine

  • caffeine

• Health risks include:

  • panic attacks

  • heart problems

  • Addiction

  • violent behavior

Anabolic steroids

• Anabolic steroids are natural or synthetic substances derived from the hormone testosterone.

• They are used to increase muscle size and strength. Health risks include:

  • Acne

  • male pattern baldness

  • liver problems

  • increased aggression

• Females may also get:

  • deepening of the voice

  • growth of hair on the face, stomach and upper back

  • changed menstrual cycle

• Males may also get:

  • breast growth

  • shrinking testicles

  • reduced sperm production

  • erectile dysfunction (impotence)

Human growth hormones and peptide hormones

• In Australia, treatment using these substances is only allowed for medical purposes.

• Examples are:

  • human growth hormone (HGH)

  • Insulin

  • human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG)

  • adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH)

• Health risks include:

  • hypertension (high blood pressure)

  • heart attacks

  • thyroid problems

  • severe headaches

  • acromegaly (overgrown head, hands and feet)

  • Diabetes

Blood doping and EPO

• Blood doping is the use of certain techniques and substances to increase the red blood cells in your body.

• Erythropoietin (EPO) is a peptide hormone that increases the number of red blood cells your body makes and can improve endurance.

• Health risks include:

  • blood clots

  • heart attack

  • Stroke

  • pulmonary embolism

Beta blockers

• Beta blockers reduce the effects of adrenaline.

• They slow the heart rate, reducing blood pressure, anxiety and muscle tremors.

• This may improve the performance of athletes who need a steady hand, such as in archery, shooting, darts and golf.

• Health risks include:

  • reduced blood flow to your hands and feet

  • Dizziness

  • fatigue (tiredness)

  • dry mouth

  • drowsiness

Diuretics

• Diuretics promote loss of water from the body through urination (weeding).

• They may be used by athletes to reduce their weight or to flush other drugs out of the body.

• Health risks include:

  • dehydration through increased urination and sodium loss

  • Dizziness

  • muscle cramps

  • joint conditions

  • increased blood sugar

Performance Enhancing Drugs (PEDs)

• Various types of performers may resort to using different types of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) for specific advantages.

Here are some examples:

1. Stimulants (e.g., amphetamines):

• Sports Example: Athletics, cycling, or sprinting.

• Purpose: Enhances alertness and reduces fatigue, potentially improving performance.

2. Narcotic Analgesics (e.g., opioids):

• Sports Example: Endurance sports like long-distance running or cycling.

• Purpose: Provides pain relief, especially in cases of overtraining or enduring physical strain.

3. Anabolic Agents (e.g., anabolic steroids):

• Sports Example: Bodybuilding, weightlifting, or sports requiring muscle mass.

• Purpose: Enhances muscle growth and overall strength.

4. Diuretics (e.g., furosemide):

• Sports Example: Sports with weight classes, such as boxing or wrestling.

• Purpose: Promotes weight loss through increased urine production.

5. Peptide Hormones (e.g., erythropoietin):

• Sports Example: Endurance sports like cycling or long-distance running.

• Purpose: Increases oxygen-carrying capacity, potentially improving stamina.

6. Blood Doping:

• Sports Example: Cycling, long-distance running, or cross-country skiing.

• Purpose: Enhances oxygen-carrying capacity by increasing red blood cell count.

7. Beta Blockers (e.g., propranolol):

• Sports Example: Sports requiring fine motor control, such as archery or shooting.

• Purpose: Reduces anxiety and tremors, potentially improving precision in skills.

Advantages:

• Increased Chances of Success:

  • PEDs can enhance physical attributes, potentially leading to improved performance and higher success rates.

• Fame:

  • Success in sports often brings fame and recognition, and PEDs might be seen as a shortcut to achieving this.

• Wealth:

  • Enhanced performance can lead to better opportunities, sponsorships, and financial rewards.

• Level Playing Field:

  • Some argue that PEDs can create a more level playing field, as athletes may feel pressured to use them to compete at the same enhanced level.

Disadvantages:

• Cheating/Immoral:

  • The use of PEDs is often considered cheating and goes against the principles of fair play and integrity in sports.

• Associated Health Risks:

  • PEDs can pose serious health risks, including cardiovascular issues, hormonal imbalances, and long-term damage to organs.

• Fines:

  • Athletes caught using PEDs may face financial penalties imposed by governing bodies or sports organizations.

• Bans:

  • Testing positive for PEDs can result in suspensions or bans from competitions, impacting an athlete's career.

• Reputational Damage:

  • The discovery of PED use can tarnish an athlete's reputation, leading to diminished public trust and support.

• Reputation:

  • The discovery of athletes using PEDs can tarnish the reputation of the sport or event, leading to a loss of public trust and confidence.

• Credibility:

  • The integrity and credibility of a sport or event are compromised when participants resort to PEDs, undermining the fairness and legitimacy of the competition.

Types of Negative Spectator Behaviour

• Various manifestations of negative spectator behavior exist, encompassing verbal abuse, physical violence, and racial discrimination.

• The most prevalent form is verbal abuse, wherein fans employ offensive language, taunts, and insults directed at the opposing team and its supporters.

• Such behavior contributes to a hostile atmosphere that can impact player performance and erode the integrity of the sport.

• Physical violence represents another manifestation of negative spectator behavior, carrying severe consequences for both players and fans.

• Altercations between fans or with players can result in injuries and, in extreme cases, fatalities. Instances of fans invading the pitch further escalate the risks, disrupting the game and jeopardizing the safety of players and officials.

• Racial discrimination remains a significant challenge in sports, involving the use of racial slurs and discriminatory behavior towards players and fans of diverse ethnic backgrounds.

• This type of conduct fosters a toxic and divisive environment that undermines the principles of fair play and mutual respect among opponents.

Reasons why Hooliganism occur

Reasons for the occurrence of hooliganism can be attributed to the following factors:

1. Motivations of Hooligans:

• Some individuals actively seek violent and abusive behavior, attending sporting events with the explicit purpose of engaging in such activities.

2. Peer Influence:

• Supporters who did not plan to participate in violence may become involved due to the influence and support of fellow fans.

Several factors contribute to the emergence of hooliganism at certain sporting events:

1. Historical or Political Background:

• Events with historical or political significance, such as local derbies, can ignite rivalry, prompting fans to assert superiority through violence.

2. Controversial Officiating Decisions:

• Controversial decisions by officials may trigger anger among supporters, increasing the likelihood of violent confrontations with opposing fans or officials.

3. Player Misconduct:

• Violent behavior displayed by players during an event can incite similar behavior among supporters.

4. Alcohol Consumption:

• The consumption of alcohol by supporters raises the risk of hooliganism, as alcohol can lower inhibitions and contribute to aggressive behavior.

To combat hooliganism and inappropriate spectator behavior, various strategies have been implemented:

1. Segregation of Spectators:

• Supporters of opposing teams are now allocated designated areas to prevent them from sitting next to each other, reducing the likelihood of violent clashes.

2. Assigned Seating:

• Spectators now have specified seats, minimizing the chances of interference with others and obstructed views.

3. Enhanced Video Surveillance:

• Increased video surveillance enables law enforcement to monitor spectators closely, intervening promptly in case of violent behavior.

• It also helps identify known troublemakers attending events, allowing for careful monitoring of their behavior.